Charity Giving Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Charity Giving - Essay Example Any person with high values and cultural values will provide high donation as per his or her financial status. Some may do charity for the help of the society by giving blood and donating the body organs in order to help others. This is done by the people due to their own moral values. The regularity of charity whether financial or in other forms depends largely on the person and his or her values in life. None of the charitable organisations can influence them as they are guided by their own ideas and views. A few people refer charitable giving as a personal value which is incorporated in the individual from the beginning of his/her life by the parents. The importance of finance and the gesture to help others in need are the values, which influence the charitable actions of the people. These values are incorporated among the people from the childhood (Duncan, 1999). No charitable institutions, advertisements and marketing strategies can influence the people. Charity depends on the p eople and it depends on the personal freedom and rights of the people to whether they want to do charity or not. Charity can be in money and also in kind. Personal values influence to a considerable extent the charitable action of the people. However, not only the values but also the demographic factors, such as the age of the person, wealth, gender and education contribute towards charitable behaviour. Strong personal values along with moral values have a high degree of influence charitable giving.

Evolution of Respiratory Systems in Animals

Evolution of Respiratory Systems in Animals Jonathan Codd Respiration in animals is a necessity as it allows the exchange of respiratory gases that are required for survival. There are huge variations in the designs of respiratory systems and each has evolved due to selective pressures in environments, such as food and territory. The evolution of species is driven in part by limited resources and the adaptations in which these can be exploited. This report will describe the evolution from aquatic environments to terrestrial environments as part of this movement, of animals onto land, created a cause for the fast development of newly designed systems in order to support air breathing as oppose to gaining oxygen from water using gills. Lungfish first developed lungs, and the ability to breathe air instead of water, whilst living in aquatic environments and the appearance of air-breathing in fish is the major foundation for terrestrialization. Each species has different requirements due to different techniques of movement and feeding, for exam ple, and respiratory systems are required to support the lifestyle of each species in order to exchange the maximum amount of gas possible. The ability to develop additional processes able to assist in respiration has ensured that the oxygen demands of each animal is met. The respiratory system of animals is crucial for the life as it allows the exchange of gases between an organism and the environment. These respiratory systems have been forced to continually develop new designs depending on new evolutionary pressures from changing environments. Many species have evolved due to the availability of new niches and unexploited resources and thus have been forced to develop supporting mechanisms of respiration. This report examines the evolution of respiration from aquatic environments to the terrestrialization of land and the rapid expansion of respiratory methods that soon followed. The evolution of lungs from gills in the Sarcopterygii lineage has allowed the tetrapod transition onto land and is responsible for the ability to eventually develop fully terrestrial species that are able to respire solely air. Each system must be complementary to the requirements of the species and environment in order to meet the aerobic demands and some species are able to undergo various methods of respiration in order to undergo sufficient rates of gaseous exchange. Each method has been specifically developed for the niche, and uncinate processes have formed in order to assist with ensuring respiration can be as efficient as possible. Introduction The evolution of air breathing was vital in the transition of life from aquatic to terrestrial environments and, therefore the rapid evolution of the animal kingdoms physiology and anatomy in order to exploit all available niches (Graham, 1997). The development of air breathing would not, however, have taken place if the atmospheric composition had not altered during the Phanerozoic era, around 550 million years ago, when the concentration of oxygen showed an increase, likely due to the appearance of large vascular land plants (Ra et al., 2007). The ozone layer was thought to have formed around two billion years ago (Walker, 1978) and is essential for allowing the survival of life on earth by preventing high-energy ultra-violet radiation from entering the earths atmosphere (Parson, 2003). The movement onto land has allowed for a huge expansion in the amount of available niches and therefore caused a rapid radiation in the body plans of animals and a variety of respiratory mechanisms to evolve in support (Ra et al., 2007)    The Importance of Pulmonary Surfactant Lungs differ throughout the animal kingdom as they have evolved for the specific niche of each species; nevertheless one thing they all commonly include is a gas-liquid interface which allows surface tension to arise, causing complications (Daniels and Orgeig, 2003). The pulmonary surfactant system prevents the collapse of respiratory surfaces in lungs due to unequal pressures arising from differently sized alveoli, as well as maintaining a reduced resistance to air flow and improving lung compliance (Daniels and Orgeig, 2003). There is overwhelming evidence that there was a single evolutionary origin of the surfactant system, thought to be from the epithelial cells lining the pharynx (Daniels et al., 2004), due to Surfactant Protein-A (SP-A) or like-structures being present in all the major vertebrate groups; implying that it is an essential pre-requisite for lung evolution (Sullivan et al., 1998). Surfactant has been studied in swim bladders, which have now been shown to be a homol og of the lung, with the original principal function being an anti-adhesive but also with involvement in preventing water from entering the swim bladders or lungs (Daniels et al., 2004) Pulmonary surfactant composition is primarily lipids (around 90%) most of which are phospholipids, and the remaining ten percent is comprised of proteins. (Veldhuizen et al., 1998). There were found to be four types of surfactant proteins (SPs): A, B, C and D which all have varying properties and roles within the surfactant system; SP-B and SP-C were both found to be highly involved in the surface activity due to hydrophobic properties and SP-D is hydrophilic and part of the collectin family (Wà ¼stneck et al., 2005). Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) is the most hydrophobic lipid component and therefore DPPC-rich monolayers are able to sit packed tightly together, ensuring the exclusion of water, however they are not well suited for the expansion of the lungs and so are alternated with mixed monolayers when necessary (Wà ¼stneck et al., 2005). Respiration in Fish Fish evolution has allowed both water and air breathing to arise as a means of gas exchange and as these vary greatly in properties, such as density and the oxygen concentration, the mechanistic pumps must also show great diversity to meet the requirements for effective respiration (Brainerd and Ferry-Graham, 2005). Fish that breathe in water use gills which are highly evolved organs that provide large surface areas and thin barriers between the fishs blood and the aquatic environment, thus allowing for a high rate of gaseous diffusion (Evans et al., 2005). Whilst they show properties for gaseous exchange the gills are multifunctional organs which are also responsible for the loss of ions and nitrogenous waste, therefore fish must also have regulatory mechanisms allowing them to successfully osmoregulate (Evans et al., 2005). As fish are continually moving they all require a buccal pressure pump as well as a suction pump, most likely the operculum, working in tandem to allow for expansion and compression to move water across the gills; the suction pump is more prominent in some species such as the Osteichthyes compared to the Chondrichthyes (Ap and La, 2001). A counter-current method is established due to water flowing in the opposite direction to the movement of blood, with the secondary lamell ae being the site of gaseous exchange (Shelton and Randall, 1962). The counter-current mechanism is required as the content of dissolved oxygen is less in water than it would be in the atmosphere (Ibanez et al., 2008) and thus allows high concentrations of gas to be exchanged, whereas a con-current mechanism would too quickly reach an equilibrium and efficient extraction of oxygen would cease (Brainerd and Ferry-Graham, 2005). There are two hypothesis surrounding the origin of air breathing in fish, one suggests that lungs arose only once at the base of the Osteichthyes, whereas opposing arguments have recently suggested that lungs evolved on at least two separate occasions and instead developed in both the Actinopterygii and Sarcopterygii (Brainerd, 1994). Some air breathing fish, such as the Actinopterygian, are able to modify their buccal pump to create a four-pump mechanism, using two expiration and compression cycles, in which expired air is first pumped into the lungs before being compressed out into the atmosphere (Perry et al., 2001). When empty fresh air is inhaled via the expansion of the buccal cavity before finally being compressed into the lungs, this is shown to fully expand and compress and so there is little mixing of expired and fresh air (Perry et al., 2001). Not all air breathing fish show this mechanism as some Dipnoi, lungfish for example, will still ventilate using the primitive two-stroke mechanism (Burggren and Johansen, 1986) and even though there can be mixing of expired and fresh air in the lungs, there has been no significant evidence to suggest that this is any less effective than the four-stroke method as breathing accessories allows the increase in volume of inhaled gases (Brainerd, 1994). Terrestrialisation Lungs were an obvious pre-requisite for the transition onto land but there were many other anatomical and physiological adaptations necessary for tetrapods before they were able to fully terrestrialise and survive free of an aquatic environment (Daeschler et al., 2006). In the late Devonian, terrestralisation occurred as a means of exploring previously unexploited niches and resources through the evolution of tetrapods via the Sarcopterygian lineage, whose habitats were most likely mud-flats neighbouring the waters edge (Graham and Lee, 2004). Tetrapods share common features with both modern day land vertebrates and fishes and the discovery of Tiktaalik rosaea allowed the transitional form to be studied in detail to provide evidence on the necessary adaptations required for terrestrialisation (Sarfati, 2007). The skeleton of Tiktaalik was found to be a lot stronger than that of its sarcopterygii-like ancestors and would have allowed it to support its own body weight in substrate, it also showed a longer snout and loss of bony gill covering but still maintained fish-like qualities, such as well developed gill arches and fin rays which implies that it still spent a majority of time in an aquatic environment (Ahlberg and Clack, 2006). Tetrapod digits were seen to arise from the pectoral fins of Sarcopterygii, although there was seen to be a pattern there remained a few anomalies throughout the development (Sarfati, 2007). When discovered Tiktaalik was a hugely important addition to the fossil record and bridged the gap between fish and tetrapods after confirmation from phylogenetic studies placed it on the Sarcopterygian to tetrapod lineage (Sarfati, 2007). The further anatomical and physiological changes that continued after Tiktaalik were responsible for allowing tetrapods to adopt new mechanisms of feeding and locomotion that were required for survival on land and thus was responsible for a huge step in the necessary radiation of respiratory systems (Clack, 2006). Respiration in Amphibians and Non-Avian Reptiles Amphibians are able to breathe by utilising cutaneous methods, using their skin to exchange gases, which could also suggest that it was an important method of respiration used during the transition onto land (Gans, 1970). [JC1]Some amphibians, that have a large enough surface area to volume ratio, such as certain species of salamanders, will rely solely on cutaneous respiration for gaseous exchange due to an absence of lungs (Feder and Burggren, 1985). Cutaneous respiration is based on an infinite pool of oxygen, through air or water mediums, in what is known as a co-current or open flow and is a passive process as there is a lack of inspiratory or expiratory flow (Burggren and Moallf, 1984). Whilst a few amphibians will rely only on cutaneous respiration, most will just use it as an accessory breathing mechanisms and will have other primary methods of respiration (Brainerd and Owerkowicz, 2006). As a means of understanding the primitive breathing in early tetrapods and air breathing fish, other species of salamanders have been studied. It was found that they use a method similar to the two-stroke mechanism previously described in Dipnoi; in which during inspiration they will expand their buccal cavity in order to create a negative pressure required to draw in fresh air, therefore supporting claims that this is most likely the primite mechanism of respiration seen in Sarcopterygii and early tetrapods (Brainerd et al., 1993). Whilst most air breathers will create a negative pressure to cause air to move into the lungs, frogs and some air breathing fish, are known as positive pressure breathers as they use their buccal chamber to fill with air which they will then actively force into the lungs (Jones, 1982). In frogs this system consists of two valves; the paired nares, which remain open for the majority of the time with the function of connecting the buccal cavity to the external air and the glottal valve which spends the majority of the time closed and is only opened when air is entering or leaving the lungs from the buccal chamber (Jones, 1982). This breathing cycle is most likely to begin with expiration as breath-holding was found to most likely occur during the end of the buccal inspiration (Jones, 1982). Reptiles, are believed to be the first group of animals to involve movements of the ribs in the assisting with lung ventilation (Nielsen, 1961). Aspiration breathing is thought to have arison in amniotes, which includes reptiles and mammals, most of which have tried to eliminate their reliance on costal aspiration by evolving accessory breathing methods to aid in respiration (Brainerd and Owerkowicz, 2006). It is evident that aspiration breathing evolved after the buccal pump mechanisms, however, there have been no transitional forms intermediate between the two found which suggests that aspiration breathing developed abruptly and amniotes soon after lost the ability to utilise a buccal cavity (Brainerd, 1999). Studies in lepidosaurs, established that most have an unidivided pleural cavity, which is also present in amphibians and air breathing fish, suggesting that this is the primitive form and that seperation occurred only later on in evolutionary history (Brainerd, 1999). Crocodiles display many unique features compared to the rest of the reptile group as they use a hepatic pistol to ventilate their lungs by utlising a muscle known as the diaphragmaticus, which is not homologous with any other diaphragmatic muscle (Brainerd, 1999). The liver divides the thoracoabdominal cavity and the diaphragmaticus muscle, orinating from the pelvis and caudal gastralia, is responsible for the expansion of the thoracic cavity by retracting the liver; this creates a negative pressure inside and fresh air is forced in, with inspiration containing an intermediate pause (Brainerd and Owerkowicz, 2006). The multicameral chamber seen in crocdiles allows high aerobic demands to be met, which is vital for their survival, and is only found in few other reptile species (Perry, 1988). Respiration in Avian Reptiles Avian reptiles, more commonly known as birds, use a lung-air sac respiratory system which allows cross-current flow, where air and blood are flowing in the same direction to one another (Scheid and Piiper, 1972). The avian respiratory system is small and compact and the thin barriers are thought to be advantageous during flight but not necessary as the mammalian bat respiratory system is dissimilar but still successful for long migratory flights (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1997). Uncinate processes, which alternate depending on the niche of each bird, are fundamental in the avian respiratory system and assist with the movement of the ribs and sternum, allowing for both inspiration and expiration to take place (Codd et al., 2008). The air sacs are used only for ventilation, with gaseous exchanges taking place as air is passed through the parabronchi, which are thin tubes with openings at each end allowing the uni-directional flow of air, which was found to be unique to avian respiration (Scheid, 1979). The parabronchi are packed into a dense hexagonal array with gas exchange tissue, known as the mantle, surrounding the lumen of each; composing a networks of both blood and air capillaries (Brown et al., 1997). The cross-current system found in birds requires these blood and air capillaries to be in close proximity and arranged parallel to one another in order for diffusion to take place; with the uni-directional flow being studied and found to be of no additional advantage to this cross-current system (Scheid, 1979). There are a total of two inspiratory and expiratory cycles that must occur for the complete flow of air through the lungs (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1997). During the first inspiration air flow is split from the trachea to the caudally grouped air sacs or the dorsobronchi, where it will enter the parabronchi and the gas that remained in the lungs from the previous inspiration is forced cranially (Brown et al., 1997). When the first expiration takes place the air remaining in the caudal air sacs moves through the parabronchi, where gas exchange takes place, and another inspiration forces the air into the cranial air sacs (Brown et al., 1997). To exit the respiratory system, the second expiration forces the air to flow from the cranial air sacs through the ventrobronchi and exits using the trachea (Reece et al., 2015). The trachea involved in avian respiration is made up of complete cartilagenous rings and is found to be around 4.5 times the size of mammalian homologues which allows larger tidal volumes and increased compliance within the system (Reece et al., 2015). There have been no valves discovered in the avian respiratory system and therefore to maintain unidirectional air flow it has been suggested that aerodynamics methods, such as jet flow, must be existing in the system during inspiration, and increased resistance through the intrapulmonary bronchus is used during expiratory flow (Scheid, 1979). Respiration in Mammals The respiratory system in mammals is completely separated from the abdominal cavity and the diaphragm and ribs are both crucial in the mechanism of respiration (Keith, 1905). The muscles of the ribs, such as the intercostals, are required for the expansion of the ribcage, which allows the neccesary generating of negative pressure caused by increased the lung volume for aspiration breathing (Perry et al., 2010). The diaphragm is responsible for the control of inspiration as it is able to contract and elongate the thoracic cavity which creates a negative pressure, thus drawing air into the lungs (Loh et al., 1977). The pericardium is closely bound to the lungs and is connected to the central tendon of the diaphragm allowing the vital pairing of both (Keith, 1905). The elevation of the rib cage, which allows further increase in the available volume for external air to enter the lungs, is also under diaphragmattic control (Loh et al., 1977). The mammalian lung is highly complex and involves lots of branching in order to increase surface area from the trachea, which then splits in series into the primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi and finally the alveoli. There are around 3108 alveolar air sacs which comprise of thin membranes to increase the surface area and allow the ease of diffusion of gases between them and the capillaries (Hoppensteadt and Peskin, 2002). Inspiration and expiration cycling allows the constant renewal of air into and out of the lungs and provides mammalian species with sufficient oxygen to meet the aerobic demands (Weibel, 1984). Respiration in Insects There is a wide variety of mechanisms adopted by insects for respiration due to the huge variation in available niches. All will utilise a network of air-filled vessels, which are known as tracheae and tracheoles, and can be as small as 1ÃŽÂ ¼m in diameter, with most terminating nearby to the mitochondria of cells (Miller, 1966). The tracheal system at rest is filled with fluid which is thought to be actively absorbed by the permeable inner tracheal wall when required for breathing, using active transport or secretion from cells (Wigglesworth, 1953). Experiments have demonstrated that during tracheal compression, which is controlled by an increased pressure inside the exoskeleton, the tracheae noticeably shrink in diameter to aid in air convection and increased diffusion of oxygen into the tissues due to a high pressure build up (Westneat et al., 2003). Spiracles are required at the external and internal barrier in the tracheael system to allow external air through the skin; and previous experiments have found if these are blocked then the insect cannot survive as respiration will cease (Fraenkel and Herford, 1938). Interneurons are essential as they are responsible for the pairing of spiracle movement with ventilation by communicating with the spiracles motor neurones (Miller, 1966). The discontinuous gas exchange cycles present in insects will typically occur in three stages, beginning the closed-spiracle phase where only small amounts of external gas exchange are able to take place (Lighton, 1996). A fluttering-spiracle phase permits oxygen uptake for the diffusion of gases into the tracheael tissues and finally an open-spiracle phase concludes the cycle whilst allowing the release of accumulated carbon dioxide (Lighton, 1996). Ventilation is under endogenously controlled rhythms produced by the central nervous system which allows aerobic respiration rates in flight muscles to be so successful that they can be challenged only by certain species of bacteria (Miller, 1966). During insect respiration air is sucked into the tracheal system by creating negative alterations in internal pressure using the pumping of hemolymph by the heart or the contracting of abdominal muscles, others can include passive diffusion or autoventilation (Westneat et al., 2003). Respiration in Cetaceans Cetaceans have evolved a much more unusual respiratory system to any terrestrial mammal, as the nasal passageway has moved to a more dorsal position to allow the exclusion of water from the system and ease of breathing as they surface (Thomas and Kastelein, 1991). A nasal plug, made up of nasal plug muscle, connective tissue and adipose tissue, is responsible for the seperation of the internal and external environment and is retracted anteriolaterally for respiration by bilaterally paired nasal plug muscles (Thomas and Kastelein, 1991). The lung size of cetaceans varies depending on the depth of the dives undertaken, due to the variety of pressures causing differing extents of thoracic collapse (Piscitelli et al., 2010). It was found that the lung size will be reduced in cetaceans that undergo deeper dives and there will be an increase in the thoracic mobility. The lungs of larger whales were found to possess extremely heavy myoelastic bundles in the air sacs and alvolar membranes that were not found in much smaller cetacea (Wislocki, 1942). Conclusion The evolution of respiratory systems has been an extremely specific process that has showed both gradual, and rapid changes throughout the many lineages of the animal kingdom in order to encorporate universal requirements, as well as accessory breathing mechanisms (Weibel, 1984). Respiration is a vital life process required for survival and it is essential that gas exchange is as efficient as possible in order to allow high oxygen-demanding aerobic activities to take place when necessary (Perry, 1988). Each respiratory system may have a variety of additional mechanisms, uncinate processes, that assist in the breathing mechanics to enable the ease of transporting larger volumes of air within each system (Codd et al., 2008). The pulmonary surfactant system is of great importance, as it allows the successful existance of such mechanisms by preventing collapse of respiratory surfaces, as well as aiding them by increasing lung compliance and reducing the resistance to air flow (Daniels and Orgeig, 2003). The evolution of efficient respiratory systems, when paired with other necessary adaptations, has provided a foundation for more complex body systems to develop to allow the utilisation of previously unexploited resources and niches, thus providing organisms advantages in the animal kingdom (Graham, 1997). Bibliography Ahlberg, P.E., Clack, J.A., 2006. Palaeontology: A firm step from water to land. Nature 440, 747-749. doi:10.1038/440747a Ap, S., La, F.-G., 2001. Ventilatory modes and mechanics of the hedgehog skate (Leucoraja erinacea): testing the continuous flow model. J. Exp. Biol. 204, 1577-1587. Brainerd, E.L., 1999. New perspectives on the evolution of lung ventilation mechanisms in vertebrates. Exp. Biol. Online 4, 1-28. doi:10.1007/s00898-999-0002-1 Brainerd, E.L., 1994. The Evolution of Lung-Gill Bimodal Breathing and the Homology of Vertebrate Respiratory Pumps. Integr. Comp. Biol. 34, 289-299. doi:10.1093/icb/34.2.289 Brainerd, E.L., Ditelberg, J.S., Bramble, D.M., 1993. Lung ventilation in salamanders and the evolution of vertebrate air-breathing mechanisms. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 49, 163-183. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1993.tb00896.x Brainerd, E.L., Ferry-Graham, L.A., 2005. Mechanics of Respiratory Pumps, in: Physiology, B.-F. (Ed.), Fish Biomechanics. Academic Press, pp. 1-28. doi:10.1016/S1546-5098(05)23001-7 Brainerd, E.L., Owerkowicz, T., 2006. Functional morphology and evolution of aspiration breathing in tetrapods. Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol., Frontiers in Comparative Physiology II: Respiratory Rhythm, Pattern and Responses to Environmental Change 154, 73-88. doi:10.1016/j.resp.2006.06.003 Brown, R.E., Brain, J.D., Wang, N., 1997. The avian respiratory system: a unique model for studies of respiratory toxicosis and for monitoring air quality. Environ. Health Perspect. 105, 188-200. Burggren, W., Moallf, R., 1984. Active regulation of cutaneous exchange by capillary recruitment in amphibians: Experimental evidence and a revised model for skin respiration. Respir. Physiol. 55, 379-392. doi:10.1016/0034-5687(84)90059-8 Burggren, W.W., Johansen, K., 1986. Circulation and respiration in lungfishes (dipnoi). J. Morphol. 190, 217-236. doi:10.1002/jmor.1051900415 Clack, J.A., 2006. The emergence of early tetrapods. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 232, 167-189. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.07.019 Codd, J.R., Manning, P.L., Norell, M.A., Perry, S.F., 2008. Avian-like breathing mechanics in maniraptoran dinosaurs. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 275, 157-161. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1233 Daeschler, E.B., Shubin, N.H., Jenkins, F.A., 2006. A Devonian tetrapod-like fish and the evolution of the tetrapod body plan. Nature 440, 757-763. doi:10.1038/nature04639 Daniels, C.B., Orgeig, S., 2003. Pulmonary Surfactant: The Key to the Evolution of Air Breathing. News Phsiology Sci. 18, 151-157. Daniels, C.B., Orgeig, S., Sullivan, L.C., Ling, N., Bennett, M.B., Schà ¼rch, S., Val, A.L., Brauner, C.J., 2004. The Origin and Evolution of the Surfactant System in Fish: Insights into the Evolution of Lungs and Swim Bladders. Physiol. Biochem. Zool. Ecol. Evol. Approaches 77, 732-749. doi:10.1086/422058 Evans, D.H., Piermarini, P.M., Choe, K.P., 2005. The Multifunctional Fish Gill: Dominant Site of Gas Exchange, Osmoregulation, Acid-Base Regulation, and Excretion of Nitrogenous Waste. Physiol. Rev. 85, 97-177. doi:10.1152/physrev.00050.2003 Feder, M.E., Burggren, W.W., 1985. Cutaneous Gas Exchange in Vertebrates: Design, Patterns, Control and Implications. Biol. Rev. 60, 1-45. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1985.tb00416.x Fraenkel, G., Herford, G.V.B., 1938. The Respiration of Insects Through the Skin. J. Exp. Biol. 15, 266-280. Gans, C., 1970. Respiration in Early Tetrapods-The Frog is a Red Herring. Evolution 24, 723-734. doi:10.2307/2406552 Graham, J.B., 1997. Air-Breathing Fishes: Evolution, Diversity, and Adaptation. Academic Press. Graham, J.B., Lee, H.J., 2004. Breathing Air in Air: In What Ways Might Extant Amphibious Fish Biology Relate to Prevailing Concepts about Early Tetrapods, the Evolution of Vertebrate Air Breathing, and the Vertebrate Land Transition? Physiol. Biochem. Zool. 77, 720-731. doi:10.1086/425184 Hoppensteadt, F.C., Peskin, C.S., 2002. Gas Exchange in the Lungs, in: Modeling and Simulation in Medicine and the Life Sciences, Texts in Applied Mathematics. Springer New York, pp. 75-108. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-21571-6_3 Ibanez, J.G., Hernandez-Esparza, M., Doria-Serrano, C., Fregoso-Infante, A., Singh, M.M., 2008. Dissolved Oxygen in Water, in: Environmental Chemistry. Springer New York, pp. 16-27. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-49493-7_2 Jones, R.M., 1982. How toads breathe: Control of air flow to and from the lungs by the nares in Bufo marinus. Respir. Physiol. 49, 251-265. doi:10.1016/0034-5687(82)90077-9 Keith, A., 1905. The Nature of the Mammalian Diaphragm and Pleural Cavities. J. Anat. Physiol. 39, 243-284. Lighton, J.R., 1996. Discontinuous gas exchange in insects. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 41, 309-324. doi:10.1146/annurev.en.41.010196.001521 Loh, L., Goldman, M., Davis, J.N., 1977. The assessment of diaphragm function. Medicine (Baltimore) 56, 165-169. Miller, P.L., 1966. The Regulation of Breathing in Insects, in: J.W.L. Beament, J.E.T. and V.B.W. (Ed.), Advances in Insect Physiology. Academic Press, pp. 279-354. doi:10.1016/S0065-2806(08)60189-7 Nielsen, B., 1961. On the Regulation of the Respiration in Reptiles. J. Exp. Biol. 38, 301-314. Parson, E.A., 2003. Protecting the Ozone Layer: Science and Strategy. Oxford University Press. Perry, S.F., 1988. Functional Morphology of the Lungs of the Nile Crocodile, Crocodylus Niloticus: Non-Respiratory Parameters. J. Exp. Biol. 134, 99-117. Perry, S.F., Similowski, T., Klein, W., Codd, J.R., 2010. The evolutionary origin of the mammalian diaphragm. Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol. 171, 1-16. doi:10.1016/j.resp.2010.01.004 Perry, S.F., Wilson, R.J.A., Straus, C., Harris, M.B., Remmers, J.E., 2001. Which came first, the lung or the breath? Comp

A Tale Of Two Cities - Foreshadowing :: essays research papers

In Charles Dickens’, Tale of Two Cities, the author repeatedly foreshadows the impending revolution. In Chapter Five of Book One, Dickens includes the breaking of a wine cask to show a large, impoverished crowd gathered in a united cause. Later, we find find Madame Defarge symbolically knitting, what we come to find out to be, the death warrants of the St. Evremonde family. Also, after Marquis is murdered for killing the small child with his horses, we come to see the theme of revenge that will become all too common. The author uses vivid foreshadowing to paint a picture of civil unrest among the common people that will come to lead to the French Revolution. In Chapter Five of Book One, Dickens includes the breaking of a wine cask to show a large, impoverished crowd gathered in a united cause. At this point in the novel, Lucie Mannette and Mr. Lorry had just arrived in Paris to find Lucie’s father. The author appears to get off of the subject to describe the breaking of the wine cask. This however, is much more significant than it would first appear. Outside of a wine-shop, a wine cask is broken in the street. Many people rush around the puddle on the ground trying to scoop it up and drink as much as they can. Dickens describes the rush to the spilled wine by saying "The people within reach had suspended their business, or their idleness to run to the spot and drink the wine... some men kneeled down, made scoops with their two hands joined and sipped."(Dickens 27). This goes to show how desperate the people are. The quote also infers that many people are unemployed. As a joke, a man writes the word "BLOOD" on a wall next to where the cask broke open. This foreshadows the violence of the unruly mobs later in the novel. This scene points out how impoverished the people of Paris are and how rowdy a crowd can become when they are unified under a united cause. Later, we find find Madame Defarge symbolically knitting, what we come to find out to be, the death warrant of the St. Evremonde family. Madame Defarge was a very hateful character. She hated the upper-class and was never able to get past this hatred. Thus, she and her husband become leaders of the Jaquerie, a group that is planning the revolution.

Ophelia Talks Back

Based on Margaret Tattoo's ‘Gertrude Talks Back' Why yes I do believe I am fair, and I don't need you to confirm it. Honey you were never invited to my wedding. God has given me one face, and I can do whatever the hell I please with it, thank you very much. Frankly you could do with a little heavy foundation and a wig yourself; it might Just conceal the premature balding and all the frown lines you've accumulated from moping. You looked like a tired old man some days. It totally screwed me over.Get thee to a friary. Clearly you're the one lacking in morals. I know you were cut about losing your dad, but there was no excuse to go stab mine. You careless little bastard. To be or not to be†¦ Oops, ha, I Just killed Polonium. I beg thy pardon. You may not lay your disheveled, deluded head in my lap. I don't want the grease stains from what's left of the hair on your head on my dress. Creep. And I've got more thoughts lying between my legs than you were ever able to resolve and brood over in your lifetime.You were terrible in bed. I've got more resolve, you see. Yes, I did kill myself seeing as you weren't planning on taking your last bow any time soon. Alas my attempt to escape from you and your contemptible sex failed when you and Alerter dived into my grave and started wrestling each other; proving no peace even in death. Men. And now you're claiming forty thousand brothers could not match your love for me. A far cry from Act 3. Well, Hamlet. I'd say make up your mind, but†¦ It's already a little late for that.

Writers Strike

The Writers Guild of America is a labor union that represents the thousands of professionals who write what we see and hear on our televisions, in movies, and. The guild combines the efforts of two different US labors; those east of the Mississippi are included in the Writers Guild of America, East. Those members in Hollywood and southern California would be part of the Writers Guild of America, West. Once ever three years the East and West guilds come together to negotiate an agreement with the Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers. The Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers is the association that conducts all the negotiations across all the industry-wide guild and union contracts. In the particular year of 2007 when it had come to the negotiating time of year the Writers Guild felt it was time to fight for change this time around. When home video was just starting out the studios asked the writers to take an 80% cut on their pay of videocassettes in order to expand the industry. This was done with the understanding that once home video was a healthy market the studios would give back what they had given up. With sales soaring with the selling of DVD’s and the use of digital downloading the writers pay has yet to be changed from their pay cut. Dave McNary of Variety Magazine stated that â€Å"the Writers Guild wants studios and networks to take a serious look at the Guilds proposals – which seek a doubling of DVD residuals, spelling out terms of new media work and broadening WGA jurisdiction over new media, reality and animation. Attempts at a negotiation to avoid a walkout failed as the Guild announced they would start their strike on November 5, 2007. The Writers guild had a solid reason behind their strike. Patric Verrone, President of the Writers Guild of America stated, â€Å"What we must have is a contract that gives us the ability to keep up with the financial success of this ever-expanding global industry. † In response to the Writers Guild’s DVD proposal the Alliance of Motion Picture Television Producers tayed with the fact that the studios’ DVD income was needed to pay for the rising costs of production and marketing. The AMPTP took a solid stance on their approach to the negation. AMPTP spokesman Jesse Hiestand shared that â€Å"the AMPTP may have different companies with different assets in different businesses, but they are all unified in one common goal – to reach an agreement with writers that positions everyone in our industry for success in a rapidly changing marketplace. Although the AMPTP was after mutual benefit things always didn’t go that way. One of the major issues that happened throughout the writers strike was the fact that negotiations between the two parties would fall through. One particular issue that broke up the negotiation was the issue of payment for content broadcast free or bought over the Internet. Finally after 100 days ups and downs the two parties came to an agreement. The deal they came to put in effect a scale of royalty payments for writers whose work is sold over the internet. Over the 100 days the writers strike lasted, there are several things that could have been handled better. One of the greatest things is this childish behavior reported by Multichannel News Reports stating â€Å"Representatives for the writers guild and the studio alliance are blaming each other for the lack of negotiations. † They could of avoided this issue and possibly could have had an agreement before the strike if they approached the negotiation by separating the people from the problem and working together towards mutual benefit. The greatest thing that went well in this negotiation is the positive outcome. Writers Guild President Patric Verrone said, â€Å"this was not a strike we wanted, but one we had to conduct in order to win jurisdiction and establish appropriate residuals for writing in new media and over the internet. Rather than being shut out of the future content creation and delivery, writers will lead the way as TV migrates to the internet and platforms for new media are developed. Those advances now give us a foothold in the digital age. † The outcome that came from the negotiations between the two parties sets them off to a positive co-existence in the future.

Losing the Dark

Losing the Dark Have you ever heard of light pollution? Its the overuse of light at night. Nearly everyone on Earth has experienced it. Cities are bathed in light, but lights also encroach on the wilderness and rural landscapes as well. A study of light pollution around the world made in 2016 showed that at least a third of people on Earth have skies that are so light-polluted they cant see the Milky Way from their locations.   One of the most astonishing discoveries the astronauts on the International Space Station share with us is the widespread light pollution that covers our landscapes with the yellowish-white glow of lights. Even at sea, fishing boats, tankers, and other ships light up the darkness.   The Effects of Light Pollution Because of light pollution, our dark skies are disappearing. This is because lights on homes and  businesses are sending light up to the sky. In many places, all but the brightest stars are washed out by the glare of lights. Not only is this simply wrong, but it also costs money. Shining them UP to the sky to light the stars wastes electricity and the energy sources (mainly fossil fuels) we need to create electrical power.   In recent years, medical science has also looked into the link between light pollution and too much light at night. The results show that human health and wildlife are being harmed by the glare of lights during the night time hours. Recent studies have linked exposure to too much light at night to several serious diseases, including breast cancer and prostate cancer. In addition, the glare of light pollution interferes with a persons ability to sleep, which has other health consequences. Other studies show that the glare of lights at night, particularly on city streets, can result in accidents for both drivers and pedestrians blinded by the light of electronic billboards and superbright headlights on other cars. In many areas, light pollution is contributing to tragic loss of wildlife habitat, interfering with bird migrations and affecting reproduction of many species. This has reduced some populations of wildlife and threatens others.   For astronomers, light pollution is a tragedy. No matter whether you are a beginning observer or an experienced professional, too much light at night washes out the view of stars and galaxies. In many places on our planet, people have rarely seen the Milky Way  in their night skies. What Can All of us Do to Prevent Light Pollution? Of course, we all know that lighting is needed in some places at night for safety and security. No one is saying to turn off ALL the lights. To solve the problems caused by light pollution, smart  people in industry and science research have been contemplating ways to have our safety but also eliminate the waste of light and power.   The solution theyve come up with sounds simple: to learn proper ways to use lighting. These include lighting places that only need illumination at night. People can reduce a LOT of light pollution by shining lights DOWN to the places where they are needed. And, in some places, if light isnt needed, we CAN just simply switch them off. In most cases, proper lighting not only preserves safety and reduces the harm to our health and to wildlife, but it also saves money in lower electrical bills and lowers the use of fossil fuels for power.   We CAN have dark skies and safe lighting. Learn more about what YOU can do to light safely and reduce light pollution from the International Dark Sky Association, one of the worlds foremost groups seeking to solve light pollution issues and preserve safety and quality of life. The group has many useful resources for city planners, and both urban and country dwellers interested in reducing the glare of lights at night. They also sponsored the creation of a video called Losing the Dark, which illustrates many of the concepts discussed here. Its available free for download by anyone wishing to use it in their planetarium, classroom, or lecture hall.

Critical Thinking Case Study Essay Example

Critical Thinking Case Study Essay Example Critical Thinking Case Study Paper Critical Thinking Case Study Paper Essay Topic: Critical Thinking Chris had just been promoted as an Executive Assistant for Pat the CEO, Chief Executive Officer, of Faith Community Hospital. Pat had given Chris her very first assignment on her first day of work as an executive assistant and that was to gather information so that Pat can present the issues to the board of directors. Faith Hospital is faced with issues that needed attention and the board of directors must be notified of the issues so that a solution can be remedy to help the hospital stay in business. Chris was to look at the different issues that Pat had informed of her during their first meet and capture only what were the essential issues for the board of directors to know. Some of the strategic overview that Pat requested was to be able to answer the following questions: whats going on right now, what we can do about it, and what we should do about it retrieved from Resource January 28, 2006. Before Pat had informed Chris of the issues that the hospital faces, she was on top of the world even though it was Monday morning and raining. She was just engaged on Saturday will be graduating University of Phoenix on the following Saturday and will also be starting her new position as an executive assistant so there was nothing that can come her way that would let her down. Framing the problem The problem that Faith Hospital is dealing with is the decline of beliefs and spiritual values towards the hospitals missions statement. The hospitals mission states that the mission is to promote the health and well-being of the people in the communities we serve through a comprehensive continuum of services provided in collaboration with the partners who share the same vision and values. retrieved from Resource January 28, 2006. According to Chris, there are fewer community members and partners that know what the hospitals missions are and there are others that have different views and interpretations of what the mission should be. With the different interpretations of the mission the hospital is constantly faced with diverse cases that requires a decision-making solution and techniques to handle. Since the interpretation of the mission varies this attributes to one of the problem that the hospital is faced with such as: patient refusing medical services, do not resuscitate directives, how doctors are responding to the different scenarios and how certain government services and lawsuit affects the hospital. For example, some patients feel that they have the right to refuse certain medical services in which may be due to personal religious beliefs not to accept any medical surgery. On the other hand, there are staff members that refuse to provide certain medical services. This could be because some patients do not have insurance and that the staff is trying to help the hospital not lose any money if they do not provide services to non-insured patient. Another example would be the Do Not Resuscitate (DNR) directives. Some patients do not have their consent in written form so it is difficult for the hospital to abide with the patients wishes. The doctors responds to the hospitals mission in different scenarios in the medical services by abiding by their oath, which is to serve and provide services by putting the patients care first. This can also vary depending on the doctor, as some compassion about the patient and some are passionate about the patients ? right to die. So basically the doctors needs to balance the hospitals mission statement-based on personal belief and how they interpret the mission. On top of all this, the hospital also has to deal with different organizations such as the Child Protective Services. According to Pat, the hospital had a case in the Neo-Natal ward, where the Child Protective Services is in the process of taking custody of the baby and threatening to file charges against us because of the way we provided services or, as they allege, failed to provide services retrieved from Resource January 28, 2006. Another that attributes to the problem is how the media represents the hospital on the headline news that medical errors cause tens of thousands of deaths each year, close to 100,000 in hospitals alone. With that as the external panoramic view, let me paint the picture for you, from the inside, said Pat (Resource). This type of media coverage causes a decrease of the number of patients that the hospital serves every year. With the decrease of patient, that translates to the decrease of revenue for the hospital that affects the hospitals budget. Compare to the prior year the hospital lost 7% of the patient population. The hospital has 28% fixed cost yearly that is required to run the hospital business such as: paying the bills which most likely includes paying the employees, utilities equipment maintenance and serving the people. Some of the data shows that the hospital needs to hold steady at 7863 patients and 39,866 patient days or the hospital will need to reduce fixed cost by 15%. The fixed cost cannot be reduced so if there is decrease in the patient admittance into the hospital for service then the less income the hospital receives. That means the hospital needs decide on cutting the cost on the fixed cost just to break even to keep the hospital running. Some of the tough decisions would be to reduce the hospitals headcount. Solutions To help tackle the issues and problems, Faith hospitals board of director need to sit down and come up with ideas that will help the hospital resolve the issues. Solution One Solution One that I come up to help resolve the problem of maintaining and identifying the hospitals mission clearly is to provide a clear and concise procedures and policies that can be implemented. The policies and procedure has to be learned by all staff so that they can be familiarized with what needs to be done when the staff is faced with various cases. It is very difficult and impossible to write down every single item that the staff must do on certain occasion, as the medical field is unpredictable and nearly impossible to memorize. Staff member should focus and concentrate on important issue and quality care for the patients. The hospital needs to also focus on abiding by law to stay in operation while making the policies and procedures. The hospital cannot refuse care for non-insured patient especially if the patient is faced with a life threatening injury. By refusing care, the hospital will be faced with lawsuits if the patient is to die or cost more harm and injuries. For example, if the DNR is not in a written form, there is no question by the staff members but to provide the medical service needed by the patient. Solution Two Solution two that I can think of is to take a survey of employees according to their personal beliefs of how a patient should be treated and keep this survey on the employees record to ensure that the policies and procedures are clearly understood by everyone. This survey will help the hospital track what percent of the employees understand the hospitals mission. If the percent of the survey falls below 95% from the mission statement then Faith hospital needs to re-train employees in regards to the policies and procedures of the hospital. Solution Three To help improve and increase the number of patients that come to Faith hospital, solution three would be for better marketing of the hospital. If the hospital is market properly to entice patients on why they should go to Faith hospital instead of others then this will help the flow of patients. Advertising through the media such as the quality of service that patient can receive at the hospital will be outstanding, patient commitments and the type community service that the hospital provides. By having more patients should help offset the fixed cost on operating the hospital. Decision Chris needs to outline what type of decision-making techniques the board of directors should use in tackling the issues at Faith hospital and that technique should be dimensional analysis. Dimensional Analysis techniques is a checklist (Jensen, 1978) that relates to Five Ws and H, and is of most use as an aide memoir for initial exploration of a problem or evaluating options, particularly those associated with human relations, rather than of a technical nature retrieved on January 29, 2006, Dimensional Analysis. By identifying the five Ws (Who, What, Where, When) and H (How), this should assist in finding one solution. I think the best solution is the putting the policies and procedures in place. In doing this, employees that serves the hospital will have a clear and concise knowledge of the hospitals mission statement. This will help alleviate the in concision that is happening at the hospital. The five Ws and H can be represented by substantive dimension (Who? ), spatial dimension (where? ), temporal (When? ), quantitative (How much? ), and qualitative (How serious? ). Some of the questions that can be asked are substantive dimension or what asks the question like Is it necessary to change attitudes or practices? Another is spatial dimension or who, asks the question such as Recognize the exact area concerned. After identifying problem and the effects of it to the hospital, now the Pat can present to the board of directors the solutions that are feasible and achievable. It is not going to be an easy task to get all the board in agreeable to the solution but will help identify all the problems that needs to be resolved and in peoples mind. If the issues are not dealt with, there is a chance that the hospital will lose more money by losing more patients. Without the patients coming into the hospital, the hospital will not be around to serve the community. Like any  businesses, Faith has to earn money to be able to operate and serve customers. The solution that is identified to help with the problem will assist the hospital run a better business. In conclusion, the hospital needs to let the community be aware of the quality service that Faith hospital provides and once the trust from the community comes in this should help balance the budget once the flow of patients start to increase. The board of directors has to come to an agreement on maintaining the mission of the hospital and its survival. Without the mission statement, the hospitals spiritual beliefs and values will fail to exist.