What did the peace of Westphalia entail and how far did it mark a Essay

What did the peace of Westphalia entail and how far did it mark a significant shift in contemporary European international relations - Essay Example As Benjamin Straumann comments, â€Å"This is a notion of sovereignty that is based on an analogy between states and individuals, deriving its force from the application of liberal political theory to the international realm† (Straumann, 2008). The Westphalia agreement is acknowledged to be the beginning of modern International relations (IR) on the basis of the acknowledgment of state sovereignty. In Medieval Europe, feudal authorities occupied a remarkable geographical space accompanied with various political organizations. Networks of rival authorities placed on top in territorial spaces. Church and its authorities often practiced claims to jurisdiction. In the beginning, the Thirty Years War started as a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics became a serious battle which included major European forces such as Spain, France, Germany, Sweden and Denmark. Scholars of international relations have widely accepted the Peace of Westphalia as shorthand to determine the system of states which formed the world in the present day. Before the Thirty Years War, European political order was a combination of the traditions of Roman Empire and the Church. The U.S efforts to built Free State in Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq highlight the relevance of Westphalia settlement. Historical upbringing: From the Thirty Years’ War to the Westphalia treaty The Thirty years War explore some remarkable changes that happened in the field of international relations and the conflicts related with political organizations and other institutions like church, lords, empires and Pope. The war was a thrash about two major parties like the Universalists and the Particulrists actors. Hendryk Spruyt observes that â€Å"The neither jurisdictions neither discrete jurisdiction overlapped-nor exclusive – different authorities might claim final jurisdiction on the same matter† (Spruyt, 1994). Universalists includes the emperor and Spanish King belonged to the Habsburg dynasty and the Particularist actors having rich ideological and political support from Denmark. In spite of the political support from Denmark, Particularist actors have enjoyed the political and religious support from, Dutch Republic, France, and Sweden as well the German princes. Exponents of Universalists have exposed their faith in Church of Rome and they admitted the power of Pope and the power of Christendom. Andreas Osiander’s quotes showing the prevalence of the conflicts between Universalists and the Particularists. Author reminds that â€Å"These actors rejected imperial over lordship and (for the most part) the authority of the Pope, upholding instead the right of all states to full independence (â€Å"sovereignty†)† (Gale 2001). Universalists have exposed their willingness to entertain Pope’s dominance in determining the sovereignty of states. Unlike Universalists, their opponents have required the formation of a free sovereign state having full independence. Military conflicts caused devastation to the civilian population. Studies have mentioned that â€Å"it is estimated that at least half of the German and Bohemian people lost their lives due to starvation, diseases and brutal attacks from soldiers bent on pillage† (Franca Filho, n.d.). The Peace of Westphalia refers to the couple of agreements named Instrumentum Pacis Monasteriense and the Instrumentum Pacis

The Historical Developments in the United States that Presented New Essay

The Historical Developments in the United States that Presented New Opportunities for Women in Society - Essay Example The industrial revolution One of the most significant contributions of the industrial revolution at the end of the nineteenth century is the rise of the status of women. Women during this period were preferred by factory owners because they could be easily employed, they could be underpaid and could be required to work longer hours. This situation divided the home and workplace. Often times, women were found to be competing with jobs in the factories which were originally male dominated. The way of life of women began to change with the introduction of technologies and the coming of the consumer society. According to, Butler Chris,(2007) women found plenty of time to stay home and be associated with â€Å"housewife role†. Women used their extra time to be related in social and political issues. At first they started participating with church activities who also discussed same issues. A middle class society eventually emerged wherein women spent more time at home and did more s pending. In time they were considered as an important aspect of the emerging society during the half of the nineteenth century (Butler, Chris). Thus, at this time the rise of women’s status began and then the isolation of women ends. The rising status of women in education The rising status of women led to other opportunities. More women were seen in the workplaces, and were encouraged to pursue secondary and college course. By the end of the 19th century, the number of women students greatly increased. According to Women’s International Center (WIC), in 1870, an estimated one fifth of resident college and university students were women and by 1900, this proportion had increased to more than one third. The figure obtained in WIC states that at the beginning of the 20th century women had: obtained l9 percent of all undergraduate college degrees, and by 1984, this figure increased to 49 percent. Women also increased their numbers in graduate study, by mid l980, women wer e earning 49 percent of all masters degrees and about 33percent of all doctoral degrees. In l985, about 53 percent of all college students were women. (WIC) As such, many courses became female dominated like nurses, teachers and secretaries. As women began to be accepted in society, many of them took casual dancing and sports. Their rising status allowed them to participate in sports like crocheting, biking and horseback riding. Even the clothing of women at the twentieth century was less confining. (Butler, Chris). In recent events, women became more daring, as they take part in swimming, tennis and other athletic fields. We even see women boxers and other extreme sports. Important women in history The end of women’s isolation allowed them to become more visible in the society. It had encouraged women to participate in politics, and to organize reforms movements. In the 18th and 19th century, the way women were treated gradually changed. For instance, the achievements of Eli zabeth of England in the 18th century, Catherine the Great of Russia in 18th century and Queen Victoria of England in the 19th century have been properly noted and recognized, WIC said. From