Priority Sector Lending in India Free Essays

Definition and more details5 Priority sector: A need5 Priority Sector Target: Financial Reforms Effect6 Effect of reforms on priority sector lending:6 Priority Sector: Specific sector guidelines8 Agriculture8 Small enterprises8 Weaker section:9 Other sectors9 Priority Sector: present status10 Participating Entities : Targets to be met10 Participating Entities : How much is achieved11 Public Sector banks11 Private Sector banks11 Foreign banks12 Participating Entities : penalties in case of failure in achieving the target12 Priority Sector : Advantages12 Priority Sector : Major Issues13 Strategies Ahead13 Exhibits15 References18 INTRODUCTION Priority sector bank lending was mainly started by the government to reach the unbanked areas through regular banks which were till that time not much willing to go to rural and undeveloped areas. It was one most important tool in our financial policy to compel banks to increase their loanable customers. Before independence, banks were mostly privately owned and they used to lend only to the sectors in which they were assured of returns. We will write a custom essay sample on Priority Sector Lending in India or any similar topic only for you Order Now According to the reports from 1940s, 79% of bank finances were made available to industry and commerce. Of that amount too, around 32% went to large industries of jute, cotton and sugar mills. When looking at the less rosy picture, the advances to agriculture sector stood a meager 4%. Post independence, according to RBI survey of 1954, in 1951-52, of all credit disbursal by credit agencies to cultivators, only 7. 3 % was from institutional credit agencies. Of this small contribution, the part of banks was only 0. 9%. Rest was given by government and cooperative agencies. From this statistics, it is clear that the rest of the credit was availed by the cultivators from non-institutional credit agencies. When the interest rates charged by these agencies was checked, they were found to be usuriously high with professional moneylenders charging 41. 9% interest rate while agricultural moneylenders charged 23. 9% interest rate which was 5-6 times more than the normal bank rate. It shows that if a farmer is getting loan at this interest rate, chances are more that he will never be able to repay it fully and fall in the vicious circle of loans. By getting working capital at such high interest rates, it was equally difficult to breakeven. So, agriculture and small and medium enterprises were in deep need for credit at easy terms. PRIORITY SECTOR DEFINITION AND MORE DETAILS Priority sector and its coverage area kept changing all through these years, mostly due to economic and political pressures. Although its definition can be divided in two parts i. e. pre-reform and post reform period. Pre reform period definition: â€Å"It included agriculture, Small scale industry (including setting up of industrial estates), small road and water transport operators, small business, retail trade, professional and self employed persons, state sponsored organizations for SC/STs, educational loans granted to individuals by banks under schemes, Credit schemes for weaker sections and refinance by sponsor banks to Regional Rural Banks. † About the post reform definition we will talk later in details when dealing in the section about priority sector guidelines. PRIORITY SECTOR: A NEED Population support and employment generation: According to the definition of priority sector it covers about 70% of India’s population by rough estimates. So, by making it mandatory for the banks to lend to priority sector, government is actually trying to cover a big part of population. Priority sector mostly includes agriculture and allied sector which employs largest number of people in ou r country. †¢Freedom from non-institutional credit: The priority sector cut out by government was mostly the one which was earlier taking loans from non-institutional sources and was always indebted because of usurious rates of interest. By creating priority sector lending, it was tried to make institutional credit available to a bigger section, at affordable interest rates. †¢Willingness of banks: Most of the banks were not willing to lend to this sector because of the risk involved here as well as more paperwork required to lend smaller loans to large number of people. They were happy lending to urban sector which was more reliable and trustworthy. They preferred lending to industry, commerce, trade and securities as their traditional loanees and who were supposed to default less. Location of banks: Banks were earlier situated mostly in urban area where the business was and so, it was geographically also difficult for them to lend to rural and backward areas where there was no banking network earlier. It was difficult to know about the credit history of borrower and the potential ability of loaned to repay the loan as well as potential of the project for which loan was to be given. So, they were skeptical abou t loaning to those sectors. †¢Institutional credit: By allowing priority sector credit to flow, RBI and government actually allowed large amount of institutional credit to flow in this area. So, as it became mandatory for the banks to complete certain target for priority sector, they started searching for viable projects and loaners who can successfully repay the loan. For this to happen branches were opened in rural areas and people were encouraged to take loan from banks. Many people availed loan under priority sector lending and got involved in successful enterprises. PRIORITY SECTOR: FINANCIAL REFORMS EFFECT After financial sector reforms, priority sector lending underwent lots of change. As earlier, it was only focused towards weaker and rural section of society but afterwards it included many new sectors as well as the definition of earlier sectors was widened to include more areas in them: Priority sector targets are: Table 1: Priority Sector Targets to be achieved by Banks Before 1991 After 1991 Total priority sector credit 40% of net bank credit 40% of net bank credit Agricultural credit 18% of net bank credit 18% of net bank credit Weaker section credit 10% of net bank credit 10% of net bank credit Export credit – 12% of net bank credit for foreign banks SSI credit – 10% of net credit for foreign banks Source: Reserve Bank of India Banking norms EFFECT OF REFORMS ON PRIORITY SECTOR LENDING: A chorological sequence of changes in priority sector lending policy is given below which show how the definition of priority sector has changed in all these years: 1. 1992-1993: In the light of reforms, and many new industries coming up in all sectors, government and RBI decided to help out industry with credit facilities and asked banks to fulfill demand of small scale industries upto Rs. 100 lakh limit for setting institutional framework to rejuvenate potentially viable small scale industry units. . 1993-1994: The overall target of net bank credit to be given for priority sector remained unchanged but the direct and indirect target for lending to agricultural sector was clubbed together to make a sub target of 18% for agricultural lending. But, in this system also, the indirect lending was not supposed to extend one-fourth of the total sub target. Lending above this in indirect lending, was n ot to be considered in priority sector lending. At least 40% of total credit was supposed to go to small scale and khadi and village industries within limit of Rs. 5 lakh. Foreign banks were asked to revise their priority sector advance target from 10% to 32%. Two more sectors were included in that i. e. advances to small-scale industries and export sector were made with each being 10%. 3. 1995-1996: In case of any shortfall in PSL (agricultural sector), banks were required to contribute to Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF), which was set up under NABARD, the maximum of which was 1. 5 % of bank’s net credit. Shortfall in case of other areas, they were required to provide Rs. 1000 crores for financing in Khadi and Village Industries Commision (KVIC). All the refinances which was done to RRBs by the banks was now to be considered under priority sector lending. 4. 1996-1997: In this year Union Budget provided Rs. 2500 crore for RIDF fund. Export credit target increased from 10% to 12% in this year. Credit advanced to priority sector increased this year very much. From the last year numbers, it increased from 30. 37% of net bank credit to 32. 4%. 5. 1997-1998: The scope of priority sector lending was increased for road and water transport operators, with number of eligible vehicles increasing from ‘not more than six’ to ‘not more than ten’. The credit limit for housing in rural and urban areas also increased upto Rs. 5 lakh. 6. 1998-1999: In this year, the interest rate subsidy for loan in PSL was taken away on the argument that now priority sector lending is also commercially viable for banks. Banks were also given the option to invest the PSL shortfall by lending to NABARD/SIDBI, so the restriction of not lending to profitable sector was slowly being taken away. 7. 1999-00: Banks were asked to lend to NBFCs and MFIs under priority sector, to enable them to lend to rural and weaker section. INSTITUTIONAL AND NON-INSTITUTIONAL CREDIT IN INDIA Before independence, the credit which was available to farmers was just non-institutional credit or in other words private money lenders. But, after independence, government took major steps to uproot this problem which was eating up the poor population and was hampering with the country’s economic growth. In 1951, institutional credit accounted to 92. 7% of the total credit availed (Refer Graph-1) where as all these reforms positively impacted the credit scenario in India making the Non-institutional credit accounted to be 38. % in the year 2002. Graph 1: Trend of Institutional and Non-institutional credit in India PRIORITY SECTOR: SPECIFIC SECTOR GUIDELINES AGRICULTURE 1. Direct finance: Finance given to individual farmers (including SHG JLG) for agricultural and allied activities are included under this sector. This includes short-term loans for raising crops, advances upto 10 lakh against pledge of agricultural produce f or maximum 12 months period, working capital and term loans, for purchase of land, to indebted distressed farmers, for pre and post harvest activities. Loans given to partnerships, corporate and institutions for agricultural activities, and upto 1 crore for most of the activities mentioned above also come under direct finance. 2. Indirect finance: It covers vast range i. e. corporate, Primary agricultural Credit societies, Farmers service societies, Large sized Adivasi Multi Purpose Societies, cooperative societies, and for the construction of warehouse, agricultural input dealers, arthias, NCDC, NBFCs, NGOs, MFIs, RRBs and overdraft upto 25000 for no-frills account in rural and semi-urban areas. SMALL ENTERPRISES 1. Direct finance: a. For manufacturing enterprises, for small enterprises the upper cap for taking loans is less than 5 crores, while for micro enterprises it is upto 25 lakh only. b. For service enterprises, for small enterprises it is upto 2 lakh, while for micro enterprises it is only 10 lakh. c. For khadi and village industries it is upto 60% of small enterprise segment. 2. Indirect finance: a. It is made available for the person involved in marketing activities of artisans, village and cottage industries. b. Under this Loans made by NABARD, SIDBI and commercial banks to NBFCs and cooperatives involved in this sector also come. WEAKER SECTION: In weaker section, small and marginal farmers with less than 5 acres land holding, landless labourers, artisans, village and cootage industries, beneficiaries of SGSY, SC, ST, DRI, SJSRY, SLRS, self help groups, distressed poor, minority communities etc are included. They are given loans under priority sector loans. OTHER SECTORS Retail trade : Retailers involved in essential commodities, consumer co-operative stores, private retail traders, upto the limit of Rs. 20 lakh. Micro-credit : For poor indebted borrower of non-institutional credit, it is given against collateral or group security. The upper limit for it is upto Rs. 50000 per borrower. State sponsored organization: It is for scheduled castes/tribes for extending credit for purchase of input or for marketing of output. Education: Within India the maximum cap for education loan granted is 10 lakh, while outside India it is 20 lakh. It is applicable for individuals as well as NBFCs. Housing: a. For purchase and construction of houses, the maximum loan allowed is 20 lakh. b. For repair of houses, the maximum loan allowed is 1 lakh in rural India and 2 lakh in urban areas. c. For government agencies for construction of dwelling units, or for slum dwellers, upto a maximum of Rs. 5 lakh is allowed. PRIORITY SECTOR: PRESENT STATUS PARTICIPATING ENTITIES: TARGETS TO BE MET The Reserve Bank of India from time to time has issued a number of guidelines/instructions/directives to banks in lending credit to Priority sector. In priority sector various banks that are involved are- public and private sector bank under domestic banks and foreign banks. There are separate targets to be met for all the banks which are set by the RBI. RBI issues a master circular containing all the guidelines for incorporation of priority sector lending. If the targets are not met, then various penalties are to be borne by them. The targets set for the domestic and foreign banks working in India are already mentioned before in Table-1. The total advances that a domestic bank has to offer for the priority sector is 40% where as for foreign banks working in India is 32 %. These advances are further bifurcated into the advances provided to agricultural sector, small scale industries (SSI), export credit and weaker sections. However, domestic banks don’t have to contribute to SSI and foreign banks don’t have to contribute to agricultural advances and weaker sections. Over the years, the advances provided to this sector are increasing in gross value and some other sectors like education, housing, retail trade which were not the part of this sector previously were also included. The trend observed during the last three years is explained in the graph provided below. In the year 2006, the advances offered by the public sector banks were Rs. 409. 745 thousand crores where as private sector provided Rs. 06. 556 thousand crores. Then in year 2008, these advances increased to Rs. 605. 965 thousand crores and Rs. 165. 225 thousand crores by public and private sector bank respectively. This marked a growth rate of 48% in public sector and 53. 5 % in private sector. Source: Reserve Bank of India- Trend and Progress of Indian Banking 2008-09 The share of various sectors i. e. agriculture, SSI, education, housing have also registered a change as shown in the figure given below. The share of advances provided to agriculture sector is more or less same where as the dvances provided to SSI has been replaced by small enterprises, housing and education where housing accounted for 30% of the advances and education accounted for 25% of the advances. Source: Reserve Bank of India- Trend and Progress of Indian Banking 2008-09 The rationale of including these sectors was to provide the holistic development to the poor people. It was understood that it’s not just the credit requirement which has to be fulfilled but also the education which would ensure the socio-economic development of the society. In all, those sectors which can impact large section of populations are to be a part of priority sector. But, how efficiently are banks able to achieve these set targets – is still questionable. PARTICIPATING ENTITIES: HOW MUCH IS ACHIEVED PUBLIC SECTOR BANKS Exhibit-1 shows the targets achieved by public sector bank. The public sector banks were able to meet the target of 40% till 2005-06 but in 2007 they fell short by 0. 7%. There were 28 banks in total, out of which- seven banks failed to achieve the target (Allahabad Bank, Oriental Bank of Commerce, Syndicate Bank, IDBI Ltd. , State Bank of India, State Bank of Mysore and State Bank of Patiala). However, only 8 banks were able to meet target of agricultural lending and only 7 for weaker sections. PRIVATE SECTOR BANKS Exhibit-2 shows the targets achieved by private banks in lending to the priority sector. Out of 26 private sector banks, four banks (Bank of Rajasthan Ltd. , Centurian Bank of Punjab Ltd. , Jammu and Kashmir Bank Ltd. and Karnataka Bank Ltd. ) didn’t achieve the target as stipulated for the priority sector lending. However, only three banks were successful in meeting agricultural credit target and no bank met the target for weaker sections. FOREIGN BANKS Exhibit-3 shows the targets achieved by foreign banks in lending to the priority sector. Out of 29 foreign banks working in India five banks (Abu Dhabi Commercial Bank, Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi, Citi Bank, HSBC Ltd. and Mizuho Corporate Bank) did not achieve the target. However, only Seven banks (Bank of Nova Scotia, Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi, Citi Bank, HSBC Ltd. , JP Morgan Chase Bank, Mizuho Corporate Bank and Shinhan Bank) were not able to achieve SSI target and three banks (American Express Bank, Bank International Indonesia and Mizuho Corporate Bank) were not able to achieve the export credit target. The banks which failed to achieve the target have to pay the penalties decided by the RBI. PARTICIPATING ENTITIES: PENALTIES IN CASE OF FAILURE IN ACHIEVING THE TARGET DOMESTIC BANKS Domestic banks which fail to achieve the target have to contribute to Rural Infrastructure development Fund (RIDF) established with NABARD or funds with other financial institutions, as specified by RBI by giving them one month’s notice. The particulars of this fund are decided in the beginning of financial year. Interest rate and period of deposit are also to be decided by RBI. FOREIGN BANKS Foreign banks which fail to achieve the target have to contribute to Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI) or funds with other financial institutions, as specified by RBI . The particulars of this fund are decided in the beginning of financial year. Interest rate and period of deposit are also to be decided by RBI. Non-achievement of meeting the priority sector targets are considered while granting regulatory approvals for various purposes. PRIORITY SECTOR: ADVANTAGES 1. Financial Inclusion – It provided credit availability for small-marginal farmers, and to those sections which were previously deprived of taking any credit from the institutions. 2. Previously because of high default rate amongst the weaker sections,the institutions were reluctant to give credit to those people which forces the farmers or the weaker people to go to the money-lenders who charged them high rate of interests (varying between 10% to 50%). Mandatory lending to priority sector has eradicated this problem and ensured advances by the institutions. 3. Poverty Alleviation – If the timely credit is provided to small households, they can give more inputs to their produces which will result in better productivity. In effect agricultural GDP grows, which helps in upliftment of both the primary and secondary sector which are dependent on small scale industries and agriculture, directly or indirectly. It generates more employment, hence, resulting in poverty alleviation. 4. Social Inclusion – Poorer sections previously were deprived of participating in various community activities. The rise in their livelihood has given them a strong support to participate in various social activities. PRIORITY SECTOR: MAJOR ISSUES 1. High Non-performing assets – Since borrowers are not able to repay the loan on time, have created a fear in the banks and provoke them to make slow disbursement of loans. 2. Quantitative targets –Since, the stringent targets has been set by RBI, this has resulted in lowering the quality of delivering targets. 3. Government interference – Due to the regional Government intervention, the more influential people get the loan, and the poorer still get ignored. So, rich gets more richer. 4. Transaction cost – Handling disbursement of huge quantity of small loans requires more time and labor. 5. Low absorption of credits -This occurs due to lack of capital infrastructure in agriculture and other small scale industries. 6. Low Profitability -Low rate of interest charged from the borrowers makes this sector vulnerable. STRATEGIES AHEAD 1. Initiatives by Government a) Recovery of Non-Performing Assets †¢Establishing Debt-recovery tribunals – this will act as a mediator between the bank and borrower and will help bank in better recovery from the borrowers. †¢Internal audit before sanctioning of loan should be done. b)Strengthen the cooperative bank network to increase credit advances to the farmers. c)Link crop-insurance with loan amount. This mitigates the risk for Lender and borrower. d)Promote group lending to people – group lending develops a collective responsibility amongst the borrowers which decreases the default rate. e)Government need to promote rigorous extension activities for promoting modern agricultural techniques for increasing production. f)Strict actions needs to be taken against the banks for not meeting the priority sector criteria. 2. Initiatives by Bank a)Banks should increase the term and delay the installments under term loan in case the borrowers are not able to repay in time. b)They should not charge compound interest on the loan amount. In a nutshell, Government need to strengthen backward and forward linkage both to provide inputs, increase productivity and develop markets. EXHIBITS Exhibit 1: Target achieved by Public Sector banks Exhibit 2: Target achieved by Private Banks Exhibit 3: Target achieved by foreign banks REFERENCES †¢Priority Sector lending information (2010). Retrieved on August 4, 2010 from-http://www. rbi. org. in/scripts/FAQView. aspx? Id=8 †¢Trends, issues and strategies (2010). Retrieved on Aug 5, 2010 from-http://www. academicjournals. org/jat/PDF/Pdf2009/December/Uppal. pdf †¢Planning Commission reports on labour and employment (2010). Retrieved on Aug 5, 2010 from-http://books. google. co. in/books? id=qOOmWsfqfe4Cpg=PA96lpg=PA96dq=priority+sector+lending+appraisalsource=blots=HZTEbRCSVosig=QtcebyqWJ5xWqkZ_TMdmPzCp4-4hl=enei=KbFaTLK7DISXrAe9u52-DAsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=9ved=0CEsQ6AEwCA#v=onepageqf=false †¢All India Debt and Investment Surveys (2002). Retrieved on August 6 ,2010 from- http://www. rbi. org. in/scripts/BS_SpeechesView. aspx? Id=298 †¢Trend and Progress of Indian Banking 2008-09 (2009). Retrieved on August 6, 2010 from- http://www. rbi. org. in/scripts/AnnualPublications. aspx? head=Trend%20and%20Progress%20of%20Banking%20in%20India How to cite Priority Sector Lending in India, Papers

The Secret Service free essay sample

The most obvious of its other activities is executive protection, which began after the assassination of President McKinley in 1901 (Treasury, 2002, Online). In the sass, Americas monetary system was very disorganized. Bills and coins were issued by each state through individual banks, which generated many types of legal currency. With so many different kinds of bills In circulation, it was easy for people to counterfeit money. The Secret Service officially went to work on July 5, 1865. He Civil War, was very successful in his first year, closing more than 200 counterfeiting plants. This success helped prove the value of the Secret Service, and in 1866 the National Headquarters was established in the Department of the Treasury building in Washington, D. C (Treasury, 2002, Online). During the evening of the same day President Lincoln established the Secret Service, he was assassinated at Fords Theatre in Washington, D. C. , by John Wilkes Booth.The country mourned as news spread that the President had been shot (White House, online). We will write a custom essay sample on The Secret Service or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page It was the first time in our nations history that a President had been assassinated and it was the reason that the Congress eventually, after two more residential assassinations, added Presidential protection to the list of duties performed by the Secret Service. Since 1901, every President from Theodore Roosevelt on has been protected by the Secret Service.In 191 7, threats against the President became a felony and Secret Service protection was broadened to include all members of the First Family (White House, online). In 1951, protection of the Vice President and the President-elect was added. After the assassination of Presidential candidate Robert Kennedy in 1 968, President Lyndon B. Johnson (1963-1969) authorized the Secret Service to protect all Presidential candidates. Over the years, the Secret Services function has continued to change and grow.Its functions include: C] Protecting the President and Vice President and their families, candidates for those offices, former Presidents and their families, and visiting heads of foreign states and governments; Enforcing laws against counterfeiting currency, coins, or securities of the united States; 0 Enforcing laws against fraud or forgery of Government checks or bonds, and other securities and obligations of the United States; C] Investigating credit and debit card fraud, computer fraud, and electronic undo transfer fraud: D Furnishing physical security for the White House, the Main other cities. Treasury, 2002, Online). These functions are directly reflected, below, in their mission statement and fall into two distinct categories 0 the investigative mission and the protective mission. The United States Secret Service is mandated by statute and executive order to carry out two significant missions: protection and criminal investigations. The Secret Service protects the President and Vice President, their families, heads of state, and other designated individuals; investigates threats against these prosecutes; protects the White House, Vice Presidents Residence, and other buildings within Washington, D.C. ; and plans and Foreign Missions, implements security designs for designated National Special Security Events. The Secret Service also investigates violations of laws relating to counterfeiting of obligations and securities of the United States; financial crimes that include, but are not limited to, access device fraud, financial institution fraud, identity theft, computer fraud; and computer-based attacks on our nations financial, banking, and telecommunications infrastructure. Protection remains the Secret Services primary mission.The Secret Service Uniformed Division shares in accomplishing this mission through its protection of the White House and its immediate surroundings, as well as the residence of the Vice President, and over 170 foreign embassies located in Washington, D. C. Originally a force comprised of a few members of the military and the Metropolitan Police Department, it began formalized protection of the White House and its grounds in 1860. This unit was under the direction of the White House Military Aide until July 1, 1922 when President Warren G. Harding prompted the establishment of a White House Police Force.It was not until 1930, after an unknown intruder managed to walk into the White House dining room, that President Herbert Hoover recognized the need for the White House Police and the Secret Service to Join forces. President Hoover wanted the Secret Service to exclusively control every aspect of Presidential protection; therefore, Congress placed the supervision of the White House Police under the direction of the Chief of the Secret Service. In 1970, Public Law 91-217 expanded the role of the White House Police, newly named the Executive Protective Service, to include protection of politico missions in the Washington, D.C. ,area. Congress later added the protection of the Vice Presidents immediate family to the Executive Protective Services growing responsibilities in 1974. After several name revisions, the force officially adopted its current name, the United States Secret Service Uniformed Division in 1977. The Special Agent Division assists with the Secret Services protective mission through their work with personal protection. Agents in this division are responsible for the welfare, safety, and protection of certain eligible individuals. The SecretService protective methods are generally the same for all individuals protected. Permanent prosecutes, such as the President and the First Lady, have details of special agents assigned to them. Temporary prosecutes, such as candidates and foreign dignitaries, have details of special agents on temporary assignment from The Secret Service does not discuss methods or means in any detail, however generally speaking, the advance team surveys each site to be visited. From these surveys, the members determine manpower, equipment, hospitals, and evacuation routes for emergencies.Fire, rescue, and other public service personnel in the community are alerted. A command post is established with full communications facilities. The assistance of the military, federal, state, county, and local law enforcement organizations is a vital part of the entire security operation. Before the protectors arrival, the lead advance agent coordinates all law enforcement representatives participating in the visit. Personnel are posted and are alerted to specific problems associated with the visit. Intelligence information is discussed, identification specified, and emergency options outlined.Prior to the arrival of the protected, checkpoints are established, and access to the secured area is limited. During the visit, Secret Service and local law enforcement personnel form a network of support for members of the detail surrounding the protected. The Secret Service command post acts as the communication center for protective activities, monitors emergencies, and keeps all participants in contact with one another. After the visit, agents analyze every step of the protective operation, record unusual incidents, and suggest improvements for the future. Protective research is an integral component of all security operations.Agents and specialists assigned to protective research evaluate information received from law enforcement/intelligence agencies and a variety of other sources regarding individuals or groups who may pose a threat to Secret Service prosecutes. They review questionable letters and emails received at the White House and maintain a 24-hour operation to receive, coordinate and disseminate protection-related information. While most people associate the Secret Service with Presidential protection, their original mandate was to investigate the counterfeiting of U. S. Currencywhich they still do.The Secret Services primary investigative mission is to safeguard the payment and financial systems of the United States. This has been historically accomplished through the enforcement of the counterfeiting statutes to preserve the integrity of United States currency, coin and financial obligations. Since 1984, their investigative responsibilities have expanded to include crimes that involve financial institution fraud, computer and telecommunications fraud, false identification documents, access device fraud, advance fee fraud, electronic funds transfers, and money laundering as it relates to their core violations. Three different divisions assist the Secret Service in accomplishing this investigative mission the Special Agent Division, the Financial Crimes Division, and the Forensic Services Division. Due to my personal interests, I found the Forensic Services Division particularly interesting. Forensic examiners in the Secret Service Forensic Services Division (FSP) provide analysis for questioned documents, fingerprints, false identification, credit cards, and other related forensic science areas. Examiners use both instrumental and chemical analysis when reviewing evidence. FSP also manages the Secret Services polygraph program nationwide.The division coordinates photographic, Identification Program. In addition, FSP is responsible for handling the Forensic Hypnosis Program. Much of the forensic assistance the Secret Service offers is unique technology operated in this country only by FSP. The Secret Service has approximately 5,000 employees, and field offices located throughout the continental U. S. ; in Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerco Rich; and liaison offices in Paris, France; London, England; Bonn, Germany; Rome and Milan, Italy; Hong Kong, China; Ottawa, Montreal and Vancouver, Canada; Nicosia, Cyprus; Bogota, Colombia; Manila, Philippines; and Bangkok, Thailand.It has more than 2,100 special agents who are rotated throughout their careers between investigative and permanent protective assignments. Agents assigned to investigative duties in the Services field offices also serve as a source of additional manpower for temporary protective details, such as those for candidates or visiting foreign dignitaries. The Secret Service also has approximately 1,200 officers in the Uniformed Division. Officers of the Uniformed Division carry out their protective responsibilities through special support units (Counterspies, Canine Explosive Detection Team, Emergency ResponseTeam, Crime Scene Search Technicians, Special Operations Section, Magnetometers) and a network of fixed security posts, foot, bicycle, vehicular and motorcycle patrols. Numerous specialists in a wide variety of occupations contribute their expertise to the Secret Services investigative and protective missions. They include security specialists, electronics engineers, communications technicians, research psychologists, computer experts, armored, intelligence analysts, polygraph examiners, forensic experts, and professionals in many other fields.The United States Secret Service is dramatically different today than it was Just here years ago. This is primarily due to the events surrounding September 11, 2001. That morning, there were 4,600 employees of the Secret Service deployed around the world while a special c ontingent was with President George W. Bush at an elementary school. In a matter of minutes, the Secret Service deployed armed agents into Lafayette Park to clear it and evacuated the Capitol and west wing of the White House. Four planes had been hijacked by terrorists, the World Trade Center was in ashes, the Pentagon had been hit, and the nation knew that it was at war.What kind f war, and how it would involve the Secret Service would remain to be seen. On October 26, 2001, in a crowded White House Press Room, President George W. Bush signed the Patriot Act, a broad-sweeping anti-terrorism bill. The full text of his speech is included on the White House web site, along with a recorded TV version. The President explained in his speech that this bill is an essential step in defeating terrorism, while protecting the constitutional rights of all Americans [and giving] intelligence and law enforcement officials important new tools to fight a present danger (Bush, 2001, Online). The changes, effective today, will help counter a threat like no other our nation has ever faced. Weve seen the enemy, and the murder of thousands of innocent, unsuspecting people. They recognize no barrier of morality. They have no conscience. The terrorists cannot be reasoned with.. . But one thing is for certain: These terrorists must be pursued, they must be defeated, and they must be brought to Justice.. Since the 1 lath of September, the men and women of our intelligence and law enforcement agencies have been relentless in their response to Less than three days after the attack, the Secret Service held a press conference and he spokesman started out by pointing out that the Treasury Department has a strong personal agenda following the attack, since TAFT, Customs, IRS CLC and the Secret Service all had facilities at the World Trade Towers that were completely destroyed by Tuesdays terrorist actions (2001, FAST online).The spokesman then explained that in addition to the more traditional law enforcement role, Treasury is committed to fighting terrorism with every asset that we have available and then announced that Treasury has established an inter-agency team dedicated to the disruption of terrorist fundraising. The team is designed to increase our ability to identify foreign terrorist groups, assess their sources and methods of fundraising, and provide information that will make clear to law enforcement officials how terrorist funds are moved.This team will ultimately be transformed into a permanent Foreign Terrorist Asset Tracking Center in the Treasury Departments Office of Foreign Asset Control(OPAC). This is an extraordinary effort that really illustrates the Treasury Departments creativity in developing new ways to combat terrorists (2001 , FAST online). And in a very unusual cooperative effort, the Secret Service, the FBI, and the private sector, have Joined forces to create a national Cybernetic Response and Reporting System.The first step was a reporting procedure and guidelines for companies to report violations, and these guidelines were published in the trade Journal for Close (CIO, 2002). The CIO Cybernetic Response Reporting Guidelines provide step-by- step information on how businesses should plan and respond to attacks on their information systems, including worms, viruses, hacks and other breaches. The guidelines advise Close and business leaders to establish a relationship with law enforcement today, before their next attack happens.The document also provides suggested points of contact, as well as an easy-to-follow report form detailing the initial information law enforcement needs to investigate. Also, the FBI and the United States Secret Service are expanding the ways that they can share federal Jurisdiction for inve stigating and prosecuting cybercafà © across state lines. The need for cyber reporting guidelines came to the forefront at a CIO magazine conference in October 2001 when a United States Attorney addressed Close on law enforcement post September 1 lath and the need for businesses to report cybercafà © to officials. Discussions are also underway for determining ways in which the Secret Service can work with the INS. As Miller (2001), points out Nearly half a billion foreigners enter the U. S. Each year, and the most stringent demand many of them will face is filling out a form asking where theyre headed; the forms are then shipped off to storage, where they probably wont ever be seen again. What the country needs is a high-tech method of tracking foreigners as they enter and leave. Right now, the federal government doesnt even know how many people are in the country with expired visas, let alone who they are or where they live (Miller, 2001 , 21).It is safe to surmise that the Secret Service will be greatly involved in determining Service by surprise. Indeed, authors such as Steven Emerson have been writing about Islamic terrorists in the United States since the early sass. In his troubling book American Jihad, Emerson details how the United States government and the Secret Service are actively monitoring terrorist cells affiliated with Osama bin Aldens al Qaeda network in eleven cities, from Florida to Boston to Denver to Houston. In January 2003, W. Ralph Bash was sworn in as the 21st Director of the United States Secret service.Director Bash was charged with developing a post September 1 lath strategic plan that could meet the challenges the Secret Service face in their ever expanding mission after being realigned under the Department of Homeland Security. In his strategic plan, Director Bash addresses the Secret Services goals and objectives, along with the means and strategies to accomplish them. The Secret Service has three goals 0 the protective strategic goal, the investigative strategic goal, and the support strategic go al (Secret Service, online).

International HRM A Case Study of Apple Inc.

Abstract International human resource management has become a necessary undertaking in many multinational corporations. Globalization, a major driver of international trade, is one of the factors behind this development. Success in international ventures is significantly driven by the input of expatriates or international assignees.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on International HRM: A Case Study of Apple Inc. specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In this paper, some issues relating to these assignees were highlighted. They include such issues as the various aspects of pre-departure training, recruitment, and selection criteria. Staffing strategies were also reviewed in this study. The author of this paper proposed a system of measuring return on international assignments. The topics mentioned above were analyzed in the context of Apple Inc., a top ranking multinational corporation. The success of this organization is one of the reasons why it was selected for this study. Key words: International human resource management, international assignees, multinational corporations, Apple Inc. International Human Resource Management: A Case Study of Apple Inc. In the recent past, there has been an increase in the number of multinational corporations operating in the world. Such companies are heavily investing in the global market. A number of factors have influenced the growth of these organizations. They include dynamics of international trade, amalgamation of the financial markets, and human migration. Other factors include speedy movement of capital as a result of globalization. All these factors have facilitated trade on the international arena. Human resource management entails the activities carried out by organizations to effectively utilize their human resource. Consequently, effective human resource management at the global level is a major determinant of success in international trade.Advertisi ng Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Human resource development at the international level has largely focused on the formulation of effective and highly skilled workforce. By doing this, individual employees and the organization at large can realize their ultimate goals of serving customers. Apple Inc. is a competitive global company in the communications and electronics industry. It is a leading designer, manufacturer, and marketer of communications and media devices. It is also involved in the manufacture and distribution of digital music players and portable computers. The company has operations in different parts of the world. It has an elaborate international human resource management system. The current study addresses the element of international human resource management with regards to Apple Inc. Various aspects related to management of personnel in this organization are review ed. They include, among others, training of employees, deployment across the world, and return on investment. The author of this paper holds that effective management of human resource at Apple Inc. has contributed to the success of the organization. International Human Resource Management and Apple Inc.’s Experiences Components of Pre-Departure Training Overview. According to Avril and Magnini (2007), pre-departure training provides expatriates with the knowledge and skills required to survive following their immediate arrival at the destined country of work. Essentially, employees going to work in another country require information on various aspects of the host nation before they leave home. Some of the things they need to know include the culture and customs of the host country. They also need to be aware of the language and dress code appropriate to the new environment. In addition, international assignees need information on business etiquette in the new country (Avril Magnini, 2007).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on International HRM: A Case Study of Apple Inc. specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Information on verbal and non-verbal communication, taboos, rules, decision-making techniques, and business management structures should be provided to international employees during pre-departure training. Culture and customs of the new country. Training on host country’s customs is essential in ensuring that the expatriates adapt to the local culture. It is noted that business operations would be negatively affected if the behavior patterns of the new employees conflict with the cultural expectations in the host country. For instance, a US citizen working for Apple Inc. may be deployed to Saudi Arabia. Such an employee should be aware of how Saudi nationals regard alcohol. In addition, female employees would be expected to conform to the societal expectations with regards to t heir dress code. Language. Language is an essential component of communication in international business. Expatriates and inpatriates require more than just basic knowledge on the host country’s language for effective execution of their assignments. In addition, they should be aware of non-verbal communication techniques. Such awareness would facilitate communication in foreign countries. Business etiquette in the new environment. Business etiquette may vary between countries. In some parts of the world, governments regulate business policies. For instance, such elements as tax policies, power distance, and human resource management may differ from one country to the other (Katz Seifer, 1996). An expatriate manager at Apple Inc. would be required to understand the variation of such policies. Failure to comply with the new rules and regulations would most likely jeopardize the operations of the corporation in the host market. Business management structures and decision-making techniques. Different countries adopt different approaches in relation to business structures and decision-making techniques. For instance, decision making in high-power distance cultures differs with that in low-power distance communities.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More As such, a manager working for Apple’s branch in Korea should be aware of the best approach to adopt in directing employees. The same applies to a German employee working in Africa, where decisions usually come from the top management. Rationale for Utilizing the Pre-Departure Training Components Managers are expected to effectively handle employees from different cultural backgrounds. The ability of such managers as far as the employees are concerned affects the profitability of the company. People from different countries express their nationality and dress codes differently. The approach used by international assignees when dealing with certain problems may also differ. Such issues as the need to interpret actions and comments, predict behaviors, and resolve conflicts may arise. As a result, focusing on the various components of pre-departure training would harmonize Apple’s operations with the reality in the host country. Performance Assessment among Expatriates In troducing assessment. Assessing the performance of expatriates is a major element in international human resource management. The performance can be reviewed using a number of criteria. Such criteria include determining strategy implementation and attainment of competitive advantage. According to Caligiuri (1997), there are three criteria commonly used in evaluating expatriates. They include completion of foreign assignments, performance on the foreign assignment, and cross-cultural adjustment. The criteria apply to all employees irrespective of the operations of a particular organization. Completion of foreign assignments. It is an important behavioral measurement. It is used in reviewing the results of tasks assigned to foreign employees. Success under this criterion is determined by the ability of the employee to complete their assignment without seeking for transfer to another country (Caligiuri, 1997). Premature termination translates to failure in relation to the performance o f the expatriate. In most cases, premature termination occurs when the expatriate requests for transfer to home country before completion of the assignment. The assignee may also be requested to return home before they have completed their work. Cross-cultural adjustment. Adjustment to foreign culture also determines the success of the assignee (Caligiuri, 1997). Inability to adjust to the host country means failure in the assignment. Successful adjustment indicates that the employee is psychologically comfortable working and living in the new country. Adjusted assignees are comfortable with the local culture. On their part, maladjusted employees find it hard to survive in the new environment. The failed employees may prematurely terminate their assignments (Suutari Brewster, 2000). Performance on the foreign assignment. Multinational corporations expect their employees to adjust culturally and remain in their foreign posts. In addition, the expatriates are expected to successfully execute their assignments. According to Caligiuri (1997), a large number of maladjusted foreign employees fail to achieve the envisaged outcomes in their work. There are various measures of performance with regards to foreign assignments. They include establishing working relationships with the locals. Others include transfer of information and the language and cultural proficiency of the foreign employee (Caligiuri, 1997). The measures are in relation to the benefits of expatriates to the multinational corporation. Recruitment and Selection Strategy for Apple Inc.’s International Assignments According to Suutari and Brewster (2000), international assignments entail three discrete phases. The first is the pre-assignment stage. It involves the selection and preparation of employees for deployment. The second is the ‘actual’ assignment. It involves the ‘actual’ stay of the expatriate in the new country. The last is the post-assignment stage. It is als o commonly known as repatriation. Recruitment and selection of expatriates is a multifaceted process. It takes into account both personal characteristics and interpersonal skills. Caligiuri (1997) postulates that most international organizations use knowledge of company systems and technical competencies in the selection process. The strategy is the most suitable recruitment and selection criteria for Apple Inc. It is noted that measuring relevant cross-cultural and interpersonal abilities is a difficult task for many organizations. In addition, most expatriate postings rely on personal recommendations. Such recommendations are derived from either line managers or specialist personnel (Suutari Brewster, 2000). As such, Apple should rely on the proposed recruitment and selection policy. The strategy would reduce chances of failure in the assigned job. Staffing Alternatives for Foreign Operations There are several approaches used in resolving the issue of human resource in relation t o international assignments. The strategies include ethnocentric and polycentric staffing approaches. Others are regiocentric and geocentric staffing strategies (Dowling, Welch Schuler, 2004). The ethnocentric approach involves filling all the key positions in the organization with local experts. The polycentric approach, on the other hand, proposes the use of host country’s nationals in managing subsidiaries. However, in this approach, key positions in the corporation’s headquarters are held by nationals of the parent country (Dowling et al., 2004). The regiocentric approach is a mixed staffing strategy. Here, executives are transferred between regions. Operations of the company are divided according to geographical regions. Apple should adopt the geocentric policy to address its staffing needs. The approach disregards the nationality and location of the candidate. It is appropriate for Apple Inc. since the corporation has a vast international experience and a global structure that is well developed. Importance of a High Quality Mentoring System for International Assignees Mentorship refers to a form of developmental relationship. In this case, an experienced employed assists less experienced members of staff in performing their tasks. The mentors can function as guides in the exploration of career interests. They provide support to international assignees deployed by multinational organizations. Mentoring systems for expatriates can be formal or informal. The former describes established procedures and specified targets. The latter, on the other hand, is initiated whenever the assignees seek advice from their superiors or from external professionals. A high quality mentoring system is very important to any multinational organization. It determines the success or failure of foreign employees. In most cases, the programs provide the management with an opportunity to support the assignees. The support is especially important during departure or r epatriation phases of the assignment. As such, the programs are powerful means of strategically retaining valuable employees with international experience. High quality mentoring programs also help the employees to adjust to their new environment. It improves their productivity and overall performance in their new posts. In addition, the programs provide continuous communication on changes in the company and the state of affairs back at home. As a result, the expatriates can effectively cope with transfers, expatriation, and repatriation. The current global economic meltdown has led to cost constraints in most organizations. As such, it is important for organizations to have the right people at the right place. High quality mentorship programs are very essential in the management of talent and employees. To this end, Apple Inc. employees should always have a mentor irrespective of their position in the foreign country. The mentors should supervise the assignee with a view to support their development. They should assist the new employee for a given period of time. Prior to the assignment, the employee must undergo an extensive pre-departure training. The training will help them settle down in the host country. Measuring Return on Investment in International Assignments Every business undertaking requires a mechanism to determine its subsequent return on investment. The same applies to international assignments in multinational organizations. The companies should analyze the profitability or importance of international assignments to the parent organization. Studies conducted with the aim of measuring return on investment with regards to international human resource have focused on numerical results of foreign deployments. In most cases, the costs and returns associated with the investment are used to determine its profitability (Caligiuri, 1997). To determine Apple Inc.’s return on investment, one should take into consideration a number of factors. The various aspects of international human resource management would help in assessing the profitability of foreign employees. The factors include identification of the assignment’s purposes, cross-cultural training costs (Dowling et al., 2004), and compensation. In addition, performance management and repatriation outcomes should be factored in. Calculation of return on investment would eventually be ascertained by analyzing the financial and non-financial costs and benefits of the venture. The costs and benefits are then linked to the expenditure incurred with regards to the assignment. Conclusion International human resource management differs with domestic management of employees in several ways. Managing employees at the international level is characterized by different labor markets, varying management practices, and dynamic labor laws. Economic and other cultural barriers make international management of human resource a complex affair. Managing international employees may differ from one organization to the other. However, according to this author, the underlying principles are similar in all organizations. As a result, effective management of assignees and their related assignments is a major determinant of the success of these international ventures. References Avril, A., Magnini, V. (2007). A holistic approach to expatriate successes. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 19(1), 53-64. Caligiuri, P. (1997). Assessing expatriate success: Beyond just â€Å"being there†. New Approaches to Employee Management, 4(1), 117-140. Dowling, P., Welch, D., Schuler, R. (2004). International human resource management: Managing people in a multicultural context (4th ed.). Cincinnati, OH: Southwestern College Publishing. Katz, J., Seifer, D. (1996). It is a different world out there: Planning for expatriate success through selection, pre-departure training, and on-site socialization. Human Resource Planning, 19(2), 32-47. Suutar i, V., Brewster, C. (2000). Making their own way: International experience through self-initiated foreign assignments. Journal of World Business, 35(4), 417-436. This essay on International HRM: A Case Study of Apple Inc. was written and submitted by user Ramon A. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Strategies for Tracing the Women in Your Family Tree

Strategies for Tracing the Women in Your Family Tree The individual identities of women who lived prior to the twentieth century are often very tangled in those of their husbands, both by law and by custom. In many places, women were not allowed to own real estate in their name, to sign legal documents, or to participate in government. Men wrote the histories, paid the taxes, participated in the military and left wills. Men were also the ones whose surname was carried into the next generation by the children. As a result, female ancestors are often neglected in family histories and genealogies- listed with only a first name and approximate dates for birth and death. They are our invisible ancestors. This neglect, while understandable, is still inexcusable. Half of all of our ancestors were women. Each female in our family tree provides us with a new surname to research and an entire branch of new ancestors to discover. Women were the ones who bore the children, carried on family traditions, and ran the household. They were teachers, nurses, mothers, wives, neighbors and friends. They deserve to have their stories told - to be more than just a name on a family tree. Remember the Ladies, and be more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors. Abigail Adams, March 1776 So how can you, as a genealogist, locate someone who is invisible? Tracing the female side of your family tree can be a bit difficult and frustrating, but is also one of the most rewarding challenges of genealogy research. By following a few basic research methods, with an added measure of patience and creativity, youll soon be learning about all of the women who passed their genes down to you. Just remember, dont give up! If your female ancestors had given up, you might not be here today. Generally, the single best place to locate a maiden name for a female ancestor is on her marriage record. Marriage information can be found in a variety of records including marriage banns, marriage licenses, marriage bonds, marriage certificates, marriage announcements and civil registration (vital) records. Marriage licenses are the least common form of marriage record to be found today because these were usually given to the couple being married and have been lost over time. The paperwork generated by the application for a marriage license has usually been preserved in church and public records, however, and may provide some clues as to your ancestors identity. Marriage registers and vital records are usually the most common and complete records of marriage. Marriage Records in the United States  Marriage records in the United States are usually found at the county and town clerks offices, but in some cases they are found in the records of churches, the military and in the state offices of vital records and boards of health. Find out which office holds the marriage records in the locality where the couple was living at the time of their marriage or, if they resided in different localities, in the brides county or town of residence. Look for all records of a marriage including marriage certificates, applications, licenses, and bonds. In some areas all documents generated by a marriage will be found combined into the same record, in others they will be listed in separate books with separate indexes. If youre researching African-American ancestors, some counties maintained separate marriage books for blacks and whites in the years following the Civil War. Marriage Records in Europe  In many European countries, church records are the most common sources for marriage records, though Civil Registration became the norm in the late 19th and 20th centuries. Civil marriages are often indexed on a national level, though it is very helpful if you know the province, region, parish, etc. in which the marriage took place. In the church, most couples were married by banns, rather than marriage licenses, mainly because licenses cost more than banns. Banns may be recorded in the marriage register or in a separate banns register. Marriage Records in Canada  Marriage records in Canada are primarily the responsibility of the individual provinces and most were recording marriages by the early 1900s. Earlier marriage records can usually be found in the church registers. Details Found in Marriage Records If you find a record of the marriage for your female ancestor, then be sure to take note of all pertinent information, including the names of the bride and groom, places of residence, ages, occupations, date of the marriage, the person who performed the marriage, witnesses, etc. Every little detail can lead to new information. Witnesses to a marriage, for example, are often related to the bride and groom. The name of the person who performed the marriage ceremony may help to identify a church, a lead to possible church records of the marriage, plus other church records for the family. The  surety, or person who put up money to guarantee that the marriage will take place, on many marriage bonds was a relative of the bride, usually a father or brother. If the couple was married at a residence, you may find a notation of the location. This could provide a valuable clue to the brides fathers name since young ladies often married at home. Women who remarried were often listed by their p revious married name rather than their maiden name. However, a maiden name can usually be ascertained from the fathers surname. Check Divorce Records Too Prior the the 20th century divorces were often difficult (and expensive) to obtain, especially for women. They can, however, sometimes provide clues to maiden names when no other sources exist. Look for divorce decrees in the court in charge of administering divorce decrees for the area in question. Even if your female ancestor never received a divorce, that doesnt mean she didnt file for one. It was fairly common in earlier years for a woman to be denied a divorce, despite claims of cruelty or adultery - but the paperwork from the filing may still be found among the records of the court. The cemetery may be the only place where you will find proof of the existence of a female ancestor. This is especially true if she died young and had little time to leave official records of her existence. Clues Among the Stones If you have found your female ancestor through a published cemetery transcription, then try to visit the cemetery yourself to view the tombstone. You may find family members buried in the same row, or in neighboring rows. This is especially true if she died within the first few years of her marriage. If your female ancestor died in childbirth, then her child is usually buried with her or next to her. Look for any surviving burial records, though their availability will vary widely by time and place. If the cemetery is associated with a church, then be sure to check the church burial and funeral records as well. Details Found in Cemetery Records While at the cemetery, make note of the exact spelling of your female ancestors name, the dates of her birth and death, and her spouses name, if listed. Be cautious, however, when jumping to conclusions based on this information as tombstone inscriptions are often incorrect. Also keep in mind that women married men of the same given name more frequently than you might think, so dont just assume that the name on her tombstone is not her maiden name. Continue looking for evidence in other sources. While census records will not usually provide you with the maiden name of your female ancestor, they should not be overlooked for the wealth of other information and clues that they provide about women and their lives. It may be difficult, however, to locate your female ancestor in earlier census records, unless she was divorced or widowed and listed as head of household. Beginning about the mid-1800s in most countries (e.g. 1850 in the U.S., 1841 in the U.K.), the search gets a little easier, as names are usually given for each individual in the household. Details Found in Census Records Once you locate your female ancestor in the census, be sure to copy the entire page on which she is listed. To be on the safe side you may even want to copy the page directly before and after hers as well. Neighbors may be relatives and you will want to keep an eye on them. Make a note of the names of your female ancestors children. Women often named their children after their mother, father, or favorite brothers sisters. If any of the children are listed with middle names, these may also provide an important clue, as women often passed down their family name to their children. Pay close attention to the people listed in the household with your ancestor, especially if they are listed with a different surname. She may have taken in a child of a deceased brother or sister, or may even have an aged or widowed parent staying with her. Also make a note of the occupation of your female ancestor, and whether she was listed as working outside of the home. Land records are some of the earliest available genealogical records in the United States. Land was important to people. Even when courthouses and other record repositories burned, many deeds were rerecorded because it was considered essential to keep track of who owned the land. Deed records are usually indexed for this same reason. A womans legal rights varied depending on whether she lived in an area governed by civil or common law. In countries and areas which practiced civil law, such as Louisiana, and most of Europe excluding the UK, a husband and wife were considered co-owners of community property, which was managed by the husband. A married woman could also manage and control her own separate property. In common law, which originated in England and was carried to its colonies, a woman had no legal rights in the marriage and her husband controlled everything, including property she herself brought to the marriage. Married women in areas under common law are difficult to find in early legal dealings, such as land transactions, as they were not allowed to engage in contracts without their husbands approval. Early deeds for married couples may only give you the name of the husband with either no mention of his wife, or only a first name. If your female ancestor was widowed or divorced, however, you may find her conducting her own land transactions. Womens Dower Rights When a couple sold land in the nineteenth century, the woman is often identified due to her right of dower. A  dower  was a portion of the husbands land that was allotted to his wife upon his death. In many areas this interest was one-third of the estate, and was usually only for the widows lifetime. The husband could not will this land away from his wife and, if he sold any property during his life, his wife had to sign a release of her dower interest. Once a widow inherited money, possessions, or property, she was allowed to manage them for herself. Clues to Look for in Land Records When you are examining deed indexes for your surnames, look for the Latin phrases et ux. (and wife) and et al. (and others). Examining deeds with these designations may provide the names of females, or names of siblings or children. This will often occur when land is divided upon someones death, and can lead you to a will or probate record. Another area to watch for is when a man or a couple sold land to your ancestors for a dollar, or some other small consideration. The ones selling the land (the grantors) are more than likely the parents or relatives of your female ancestor.

What did the peace of Westphalia entail and how far did it mark a Essay

What did the peace of Westphalia entail and how far did it mark a significant shift in contemporary European international relations - Essay Example As Benjamin Straumann comments, â€Å"This is a notion of sovereignty that is based on an analogy between states and individuals, deriving its force from the application of liberal political theory to the international realm† (Straumann, 2008). The Westphalia agreement is acknowledged to be the beginning of modern International relations (IR) on the basis of the acknowledgment of state sovereignty. In Medieval Europe, feudal authorities occupied a remarkable geographical space accompanied with various political organizations. Networks of rival authorities placed on top in territorial spaces. Church and its authorities often practiced claims to jurisdiction. In the beginning, the Thirty Years War started as a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics became a serious battle which included major European forces such as Spain, France, Germany, Sweden and Denmark. Scholars of international relations have widely accepted the Peace of Westphalia as shorthand to determine the system of states which formed the world in the present day. Before the Thirty Years War, European political order was a combination of the traditions of Roman Empire and the Church. The U.S efforts to built Free State in Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq highlight the relevance of Westphalia settlement. Historical upbringing: From the Thirty Years’ War to the Westphalia treaty The Thirty years War explore some remarkable changes that happened in the field of international relations and the conflicts related with political organizations and other institutions like church, lords, empires and Pope. The war was a thrash about two major parties like the Universalists and the Particulrists actors. Hendryk Spruyt observes that â€Å"The neither jurisdictions neither discrete jurisdiction overlapped-nor exclusive – different authorities might claim final jurisdiction on the same matter† (Spruyt, 1994). Universalists includes the emperor and Spanish King belonged to the Habsburg dynasty and the Particularist actors having rich ideological and political support from Denmark. In spite of the political support from Denmark, Particularist actors have enjoyed the political and religious support from, Dutch Republic, France, and Sweden as well the German princes. Exponents of Universalists have exposed their faith in Church of Rome and they admitted the power of Pope and the power of Christendom. Andreas Osiander’s quotes showing the prevalence of the conflicts between Universalists and the Particularists. Author reminds that â€Å"These actors rejected imperial over lordship and (for the most part) the authority of the Pope, upholding instead the right of all states to full independence (â€Å"sovereignty†)† (Gale 2001). Universalists have exposed their willingness to entertain Pope’s dominance in determining the sovereignty of states. Unlike Universalists, their opponents have required the formation of a free sovereign state having full independence. Military conflicts caused devastation to the civilian population. Studies have mentioned that â€Å"it is estimated that at least half of the German and Bohemian people lost their lives due to starvation, diseases and brutal attacks from soldiers bent on pillage† (Franca Filho, n.d.). The Peace of Westphalia refers to the couple of agreements named Instrumentum Pacis Monasteriense and the Instrumentum Pacis

The Historical Developments in the United States that Presented New Essay

The Historical Developments in the United States that Presented New Opportunities for Women in Society - Essay Example The industrial revolution One of the most significant contributions of the industrial revolution at the end of the nineteenth century is the rise of the status of women. Women during this period were preferred by factory owners because they could be easily employed, they could be underpaid and could be required to work longer hours. This situation divided the home and workplace. Often times, women were found to be competing with jobs in the factories which were originally male dominated. The way of life of women began to change with the introduction of technologies and the coming of the consumer society. According to, Butler Chris,(2007) women found plenty of time to stay home and be associated with â€Å"housewife role†. Women used their extra time to be related in social and political issues. At first they started participating with church activities who also discussed same issues. A middle class society eventually emerged wherein women spent more time at home and did more s pending. In time they were considered as an important aspect of the emerging society during the half of the nineteenth century (Butler, Chris). Thus, at this time the rise of women’s status began and then the isolation of women ends. The rising status of women in education The rising status of women led to other opportunities. More women were seen in the workplaces, and were encouraged to pursue secondary and college course. By the end of the 19th century, the number of women students greatly increased. According to Women’s International Center (WIC), in 1870, an estimated one fifth of resident college and university students were women and by 1900, this proportion had increased to more than one third. The figure obtained in WIC states that at the beginning of the 20th century women had: obtained l9 percent of all undergraduate college degrees, and by 1984, this figure increased to 49 percent. Women also increased their numbers in graduate study, by mid l980, women wer e earning 49 percent of all masters degrees and about 33percent of all doctoral degrees. In l985, about 53 percent of all college students were women. (WIC) As such, many courses became female dominated like nurses, teachers and secretaries. As women began to be accepted in society, many of them took casual dancing and sports. Their rising status allowed them to participate in sports like crocheting, biking and horseback riding. Even the clothing of women at the twentieth century was less confining. (Butler, Chris). In recent events, women became more daring, as they take part in swimming, tennis and other athletic fields. We even see women boxers and other extreme sports. Important women in history The end of women’s isolation allowed them to become more visible in the society. It had encouraged women to participate in politics, and to organize reforms movements. In the 18th and 19th century, the way women were treated gradually changed. For instance, the achievements of Eli zabeth of England in the 18th century, Catherine the Great of Russia in 18th century and Queen Victoria of England in the 19th century have been properly noted and recognized, WIC said. From

Impact of E-Commerce on Global Business

Impact of E-Commerce on Global Business Introduction E-commerce is different from any other type of business. In other words we can say that e-commerce have far more similarities than differences. E-commerce has its road map for the operation and development of the business; just to make sure we will not be lost. It has its own process for the business planning, to set the goals, think ahead, anticipate problems and some measures for the success. The Internet is same like any other sales channel. The Internet allows companies to advertise information fast with almost zero cost, to reach customers with their range, to introduce new and innovative product rapidly, to reduce costs and generate savings, to provide complete information in short period of time, to answer customer questions quickly, and many more differences. However, Internet also creates more bargaining and selection power for the customers, creates more perfect information market to the market place. The Internet is global and being on the Web means that our business will be visible internationally which will be open 24 hours a day, 7 days a week and 365 days in a year. E-business plan must account for this difference in Web hosting and fulfil the requirement of customers. The Web is giving greater opportunities for personalization of content, self service for the customer and one to one marketing. E-business has always focused on getting close to the customer We just discussed about the differences of business and e-business. In the following pages we will discuss the impacts of the e-commerce with perspective to Abbey Hotel, Reading which we have taken into consideration as a practical business example. Discussing about the e-commerce, we will see about the hotel, its strategy-setting activities such as writing the mission statement, core value proposition which are offered to supplier and consumers, defining the business model, supply chain management, identifying target markets, identification of critical success factors and critical risks. Executive Summary The long term goal of The Abbey House Hotel for temporary lodging and boarding with our shining restaurant and attractive with safe car park creating a differentiated experience, the historical nature of the Reading buildings and as well as the modern Oracles and shopping centre with its unique location in one of the most attractive part of Berkshire. We plan to be more than a great lodging, restaurant, bar and safe park. We planed to create friendly environment and pampered guest with our unique selling services. Expanding our exposure via the Internet and introducing our Abbey House Hotel on the websites to maintain our standard and to control over the market. The Abbey House Hotel aims to build a strong market position in the Reading area of Berkshire as a result of few BB in the area as well as the mild competitive climate in the area. The Abbey House Hotel aims to offer its services at the competitive price to meet the demand of the middle to higher income local market residents and tourists. Location The Abbey House Hotel is a beautiful facility. The Hotel offers 18 individually furnished rooms, each with its own antique theme. We are a complete bed and breakfast Inn with a full complementary breakfast served each morning to our guests. Oracles target market strategy is based on becoming a destination of choice for professional couples in the greater Reading area who are looking for a place to relax. We will also advertise to the newly married couple who are looking for that special get away. It will be important for us to be visible to those potential guests who are travelling on motorway M4 through Heathrow. Abbey house hotel is an established BB, and has been in operation for the last three years. After possession and a brief period of becoming established, Abbey House will diverse into other venires to ensure a steady flow of patrons (tourists and locals) through its doors. The Abbey House is a partnership, equally owned by Muhammad Riaz Hussain and Irfan Mahmood. Mr. Riaz resides on the property, managing and maintaining the business and satisfying guests requirements and Mr. Irfan is taking care of financial matters The Service The Abbey House was originally built in 1980 and is believed to have been one of three train stations on Reading. The slogan for The Abbey House Hotel is Home Away From Home The slogan Home away from Home was chosen to ensure that customers have a different experience different from their day-to-day life. In order to be customer conscious, The Abbey House Hotel is offering four different type of accommodation to its customers depending on their needs. There will be Single, Double, Twin and Interconnected rooms. In next spring we are planning to add one full service coin-operated laundry machine which will provide the facility of washing, drying and optional folding. The Abbey House Hotel will be opened 24 hours a day, 7 days in a week. Each of our rooms is equipped with one King size bed, Two single beds and one single bed. We have full-service restaurant and a bar. Next spring we are planning to add dance floor which will provide live entertainment to the in house guest. We are also plan to renovate the guest rooms next year and placed new LCD TV in each guest room instead of normal TV. The Market The Abbey House Hotels target market strategy is based on becoming a destination choice for the people who are visiting Reading (Berkshire) and who are looking for a place to relax. The target markets that we are going to pursue are people or families looking for a vacation destination, honeymooners, family reunion, visiting patient to Reading Hospital (which is nearby) Reading University students. Our target budget is 30% over than the last budget with  £25 average room rate. More variety was added into the restaurant to increase the weekly sales and also adding vegetarian and fish chips items in our menu. Subscriptions to various Web services will provide international exposure to potential customers for nominal fees, plus it has a website http//www.theabbeyhousehotel.co.uk. The Abbey House Hotel would like to see a 20% increase in customer. Financial Considerations Mr. Riaz Hussain and Mr. Irfan will invest  £50,000 in the business for an initial capital for the start-up and a significant part of the investment will be finance by HSBC. It hopes to secure a loan of  £150,000 from the bank with a payback period of 10 years. Because its family own business,  £50,000 will be contributed by two brothers raising its start up capital of  £200,000. Start-up Summary Table Start-up Expenses Legal  £1,500 Stationary etc  £75 Brochures  £500 Property Goodwill  £50,000 Lodge setup  £200 Direct TV  £200 Insurance  £500 Other expenses  £500 Total Expenses  £53,475 Start-up Assets Cash required  £15,000 Start-up Stock 0 Other Current Assets  £10,000 Total Assets  £25,000 Start-up Funding Start-up Expenses to Fund  £53,475 Start-up Assets to Fund  £25,000 Total Funding Required  £78,475 Business Objectives The broad objective of The Abbey House Hotel is to offer service at competitive price by meeting demand of tourists and residents area of Berkshire and London. The Abbey House Hotel also aims to acquire not less than 25 percent of the BB market before the end of 2009. Key to Success In order to succeed, the management of The Abbey House Hotel will strive to achieve the following goals: To position The Abbey House Hotel as the best BB in the area of Berkshire of London among the numerous tourists. Build strong market position among the local residents. Maintain healthy and sound financial management of the venture. Business Description Vision We are committed to dynamic growth and service excellence built upon our heritage of traditional hospitality. An ethic, respected and evolving organization a leader in excellence, we strive to consistently meet and surpass guests, employees and other stakeholders, expectations. Mission To provide excellent quality and service to all our customers by valuing and rewarding our team, whilst promoting mutual respect and diversity Core Values Communication Listen actively to others Embrace diversity and value differences Regularly update information and keep others updated Open to feedback and communicate positively Collaborate to exceed the organizational goals as well as our own Work Ethics Meet commitments, set personal standards Timely in our duties and punctual Understand our duties and responsibilities and keep our knowledge updated Adapt to change, handle pressure and are open to new ideas We do what it takes to get the work done Customer Services We strive to build customer confidence and are committed to exceeding customer expectation Actively seek feedback for continuous improvement Our aim to act quickly on resolving issues Handling service issues politely, positively and efficiently whilst following procedure Recognition and growth Achievement orientation Performance-based evaluation Appreciation Incentives Setting ever-rising standards of performance Innovation Listening and two-way interaction Participation Encouragement Motivation Initiative Trust Cooperation Support Teamwork Sense of ownership Integrity Dignity Respect E-Business Facilities Online Booking You have the opportunity to check room availability and also make an on line reservation. When you click on the online Booking box located below the left navigation you will be taken to a secure page a credit card will be required for you to make an online reservation. Your credit card is only used to secure the booking and your account need not be settled by this card. Guest will make the booking online and guaranteed by their Credit Card. B2C Booking confirmation No Online Hotel Information Online booking options Guest All bedrooms have en-suite facilities Double bed, Twin bed Single bed, Tea/Coffee making facilities, Direct dial from rooms, TV, Hair dryer, Trouser press Check in time: 1400 hrs Check out time: 1100 hrs All reservation must be guaranteed by Credit Card prior to the arrival. Non guaranteed booking will be cancelled 24 hours prior to arrival. Extra sharing person will be charged  £10. Room Rate Click here to book the room Sunday to Thursday Single  £75 ENQUIRE Double / Twin (single occupancy)  £85 ENQUIRE Double / Twin (double occupancy)  £95 ENQUIRE Extra Person  £10 Weekend Room Rates Click here to book the room Friday and Saturday Single  £49 ENQUIRE Double / Twin  £59 ENQUIRE Extra Person  £10 All rates are inclusive of Full English Breakfast and VAT at 17.5% All rates are subject to change without notice Online Special Offers Extended Stay Programme, Room from Just  £40 ENQUIRE Weekends in Reading  £45 ENQUIRE Valid Date: April 7, 2008 April 7, 2009 Double bed, Twin bed Single bed, Tea/Coffee making facilities, Direct dial from rooms, TV, Hair dryer, Trouser press Reading Rock Festival ENQUIRE Valid Date: August 22, 2008 August 25, 2008 Double bed, Twin bed Single bed, Tea/Coffee making facilities, Direct dial from rooms, TV, Hair dryer, Trouser press Home Away Home click here for our specialities Advance Purchase Reservation click here for our specialities (No amendment, no refund will be given in this offer) Web Plan Summary The Abbey House Hotel website will focus on the features the Abbey House Hotel has to offer. Each room with its different options will be on the site as well as pictures of The Abbey House Hotel and the facilities that it has to offer. The lunch / dinner menu will be displayed. Room rates will be given, with maps on how to get to there. Attractions with in 30 miles will be on the site and other local colour will be shown. Room reservation can be made online if the consumer wishes to do so. Website Marketing Strategy Our website marketing strategy will focus on Corporate, Visitors and groups who are looking for a boarding and lodging. The Berkshire, Oxfordshire and London area will be our main focal point. The Abbey House Hotel will promote through our website by using: Detailed photos of the Abbey House and surrounding area Price list of our rooms and our restaurant menu. Special Package We will contact with travel agent around the world e.g. Active Hotel. Gullivers Travels, Travco, Expedia, Expotel, Late room. Last minute. BSP, Super breaks etc Guests are making the room booking through the following travel agents and pay to them. These Agents forward those booking to the hotel via email and fax. e.g. Gullivers Travels www.gullivertravels.co.uk Expedia www.expedia.com Travco www.travco.com Super breaks www.superbreaks.co.uk On the other hand, these following Travel Agents, they advertise our hotel on their websites, guests make their booking and these Travel Agents forward those booking to hotel and hotel charge to guest directly and pay the commission on top of that to Travel Agents after receiving their commission invoice. Active Hotels www.activehotels.com Late room www.lateroom.com Last minutes www.lastminute.com Our Hotels website is linked with all above mentioned websites. It is another source of e-business to increase the revenue and achieve our target. Booking through Travel Agent B2B Activehotel.com Lateroom.com Lastminute.com Gta.com Travco.co.uk Superbreaks.com Expedia.com Expotel.com Booking Confirmation to Guest Online Guest Confirmation send to the Hotel Inventory Control System on websites by Hotel Joint websites or travel agents websites providing us a business and we will allocate the rooms and control the inventory. If we dont have rooms to sell we can close their allocation and if we want to give some rooms to them, we can allocate them number of room as per our hotel requirement. If travel agent has a client who is looking for a room in our hotel or in our area and there is no room is avail able or room inventory is zero then we can sell directly to the travel agent. On both ways we are not losing the business. Marketing Strategy The mission of Abbey House Hotel is to become the best choice in Berkshire area for the boarding and lodging by expending our exposure via the Internet (with multiple networks and links). We are planning to be more than a great hotel. We are planning to bring the guest satisfaction up to the mark and the name of excellence in the hotel industry and guests feel that they are not away from their homes. And we are also planning on adding a full service coin-operated laundry facility (washing and drying) The Abbey House Hotel makes the guest valued by ensuring their comfort. For special occasions, catered meals, Extra mattress, room service, etc. can be provided for an additional fee. During the weekends, guests will return to the Abbey House Hotel in the evening and find a fine restaurant to dine and efficient staffs is waiting to serve them to make them valued. The Abbey House Hotels target market strategy is based on becoming a destination choice for families, local familys visitors, and corporate clients, small groups who are looking for a place to relax for short or long period of time. The Abbey House Hotel would like to see a 30% to 40% increase in customers on a yearly basis with 100% customers satisfaction. Our target market strategy is based on becoming a destination for people who are looking to get away for a vocation or visit London. Our marketing strategy is based on superior performance in the following area Quality facilities Beautiful location Customer Services The target markets are divided in to three major segments Vacationers, Corporate and Family visitors. The primary marketing strategy is selling to this accessible target market by focusing on their vacation and recreational needs. Sales Strategy The Sales Strategy the Abbey House Hotel aimed to adopt is to ensure customers can book via Telephone Travel Agents Internet (i.e. www.theabbeyhousehotel.co.uk) The Abbey House Hotel also aimed to offer guarantee reservation for regular customers during high season. Critical Success Factors and Critical Risks Although Abbey Hotel is a medium sized organization, there are several survival factors imbedded to its organizational culture. Well experienced staff, visionary leadership, eco-friendly geographical location, continues training and development for the staff, chances to grow based on high performance for the staff, continues supervision on house keeping, food and beverages operation, delicious and different kind of menu, clear downward communication pattern, are survival factors in the organization to overcome the challenges for its business. Among said survival factors in the organization, experienced and visionary leadership, well-trained staff and beautiful location are carrying its business to the top in the industry. Therefore, Abbey hotel could survive as well as it will reach to the business excellence, if the firm can overcome following risk factors. Due to the increased terrorism activities in the world, global certainty is being jeopardized. September 11th incident in New York, recent Bomb blast at Marriott Hotel in Pakistan are some examples. This global uncertainty directly impact for the decline occupancy rate in the hotel industry in main capitals in the world. The most difficult task is implementing proactive steps to overcome these challenges. Present financial crisis in the global financial industry is another risk for the industry as the share value of many leading hotels is declining. In such a situation, industry is in a danger situation as market is depending on economic sovereignty of any market segment. Secondly, should expectations not materialize, and then sub-par returns could damage the overall financial credibility of the lodging industry. Shortage of skilled work force is another risk factor. Changing government rules and regulation on migration policy will be direct impact for finding skilled staff for the hospitality industry. Due to intense competition among the hotels in the hospitality industry, brands issues are appearing in present more than in the past. Customers are assessing this culture that it would be affecting the quality of the service in negative aspect. Because, all organizations are prefer to maximize their profit to remain in the market long-term basis. Popularising of eco tourism also may impact for the industry, as right now customer preferences are more for eco-friendly atmosphere within the hotel premises. For example herbal spa, inorganic foods, natural cottage are highly demanded options from customers. In addition to above, increasing loss of control over the customer due to the use of the Internet, homogenisation of the hotel product and increased corporate oversight has reduced the amount of control that operators have over the customer. Hence emerging impact of new technology, operating cost creep, supply change management issues, safety and security issues, reputation risks, hig h-energy cost, are some other key issues in the industry. The management should emphasis the said survival factors and challenges as provocative measures.