Supervisory Model

I am motivated or guided y a very specific force regarding legal, ethical and even cultural concerns and we will explore that force and how it would play out in my everyday interactions of supervision. I am tremendously communal but realize that professionalism must play a part when I work with and serve under those in management and administration and I will talk about those aspects also. Today, social worker roles are tremendous and as a supervisor there is even more responsibility to the social workers who work under you.According to Shadbush (2002), â€Å"In addition to the efficient and effective administration of agency services, the education and support f social workers fashions the three-legged stool of modern social work supervision† (p. 2). L. Areas of Interest & Disinterest Supervision is not very appealing to me in relation to mental health and therapy due to the fact that most supervisors do not actually do much true therapy with clients like the clinicians that work under them. Actually doing therapy with the clients is the work that excites me.My early perception of a social worker was negative and brought to mind Miss Kebab, the nosy social worker who would visit Celandine Price. Celandine was a character in the movie by the same name, Celandine (1974), played by Dianne Carroll, a single African American woman living in Black Harlem with six children on welfare. Whenever Miss Kebab would come â€Å"calling†, she would be snooping to see if Celandine was working a Job, had a man, or was receiving gifts from someone. Celandine always had to lie to Miss Kebab because this information would cause Celandine's welfare to be cut considerably.The children were taught to hide anything that appeared to be extra to their poverty stricken lifestyle. Miss Kebab would be a nightmare for Edward Divine and the Charity Organization Society idea of a friendly visitor. II. Three Supervisory Roles In Administrative Supervision, Hackett (2014) explain s that in supervisory functions, being administrative deals directly with delivering a message, supporting a cause for staff or acting as a protective barrier regarding administrative issues between upper management and line staff.This is the first leg of our three-legged stool of supervisory functions. Depending on the subject matter and my passion for the topic. I would have to ensure diplomacy and tact in communicating a professional delivery of my message. The second leg is educational and thinking about giving instruction in a one on one fashion does not necessarily excite me. Hackett (2014) discussed education in a supervisory role as being concerned with â€Å"addressing ignorance barriers† to effective services (p. L).I have a passion for functioning in the role of educator – presenting subject matter in a broader fashion. Infusing and empowering staff members to provide effective services. The last leg of the three major components of supervision is supportive , which, according to Hackett (2014) is focused on â€Å"addressing emotional barriers† to effective services (p. 1). So line staff hat might be having a particular problem connecting with a client or experiencing stress because one of their families is dealing with particularly traumatic events, support from the supervisor is available from this role.This support can also be for the staff member himself or herself if they are experiencing difficulty in hearing portions of a client's harrowing story each week they come in. Support from the supervisor in this scenario could prevent a secondary trauma or something underlying that triggers the worker. There are many sources of stress for the social rocker and Hackett (2014) lists them in Supportive Supervision as the following: Performance & Compliance Demands Learning Demands Clients Organization Relationship with their Supervisor Vicarious Trauma (p. 3).Practicing self-care is something that social workers must apply regularly and l, as the supervisor, will need to ensure that my team gets the Abacas that Hackett (2014) refers to in Supportive Supervision as: awareness, balance and connection. My team will need these in place so that they can be emotionally healthy and continue to provide for our clients needs. Ill. My Style & Temperament I am a fun loving, outspoken person by nature and I am very orderly. I tend to be communal, and do not meet any strangers and I suppose that is because I spent twenty-two years in the Air Force.I spent time with people from many walks of life and cultures and had to grow up quite a bit through many circumstances that took place right in the different departments that I worked in. Shadbush (2002) states that humor can constrain and relieve stress caused on a Job by providing much needed space in stressful scenarios. I do appreciate humor as an icebreaker or to cause a tense atmosphere to dissipate. Even when things are not stressful I simply enjoy my ambiance better when humor and a certain display of cheerfulness.My current manager can be found laughing very often but sometimes it is inappropriate or appears unprofessional because she is very loud. I am concerned about how people view me in decision situations but realize that I cannot please all people. This creates a conundrum because as a supervisor it is given that not everyone will be happy with my decisions. So, coming short of appearing to be a dictator, I do realize that it is something I need to become more comfortable with and would need to evolve in knowing that I have made the best decision for the whole of my programs.In the lecture on Educational Supervision, Hackett (2014) discussed situational leadership and the fact that leaders determine a situation and espouse the best style for a particular posture. My temperament depends on my situation and for the most part I am pleasant and do my best to keep an atmosphere fairly light but professional. But if I sense that someone is mistrea ting my staff or desecrating our atmosphere with a negative mood because they are disgruntled, I can become someone very assertive.The lecture on Educational Supervision regarding situational leadership, Hackett (2014) determines that through â€Å"relationship behavior is the extent to which the leader engages in two-way or multiply communication. Includes listening to, facilitating, and supporting employees† (pig. 2). In these situations, my concern for my temperament is to preserve a very present disposition and be able to think through as things are being said. This allows me to cover all of the important points whether it is an employee or a client who has become upset because of something. ‘V.My Use of Motivation & Discipline Techniques By nature I love being a team player because I enjoy people so much and love to encourage others, cheering them on to their goals in life. In Strengthened, Rata (2007) describes the individual with the harmony theme as â€Å"One w ho looks for areas of agreement†. This theme suggests that this person believes that there is not much value in disharmony and I attempt to extinguish anything like this in conversation because of that. This describes me and I am not afraid of healthy conflict but I find any conflict outside of that to be counterproductive.In my supervision style regarding titivation I would look for the benefits of my staff being team oriented and do my best to teach them the value in having a harmonious atmosphere. My desire would be to encourage them to see the benefit of their contribution to what we do in our program. According to Administrative Supervision, (according to Hackett, 2014 lecture, p. 1 1) â€Å"most experts on motivation affirm that praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging are more lasting motivators than money'. In Herrings Hygiene Motivation Theory, (according to Hackett, 2014 lecture, p. 0) she tastes that money already provides limited motivati on, and then when it is absent from the Hygiene Factors then denomination will automatically kick in. Along the theme of motivation, in the bible (n. D. ), God gave Noah the task of building the ark and taking his family and specified numbers of each animal with him as God commanded according to Genesis chapter six, verse thirteen through chapter seven, verse sixteen. According to the bible (n. D. ), in chapter seven, verse one God says, â€Å"Come into the ark, you and all your household, because I have seen that you are righteous before Me in this generation†.In verse seven of the same chapter it says, â€Å"So Noah, with his sons, his wife, and his sons' wives went into the ark†. Noah was a servant leader that God used to replenish the earth and he had to determine how to motivate his family and all of those animals to get onto that boat. In verse nine of chapter seven, according the bible (n. D. ), it says, â€Å"two by two they went into the ark to Noah, male and female, as God had commanded Noah. Pastor Diego Mesa (2014), taught the lesson All Aboard-The Life of Noah and stated, â€Å"Noah had to live a certain way before his family in order for them to follow him†.This is encouraging for me as a supervisor because as God has called me to walk in my destined position in life, as His servant leader, he will give me the grace and strength to carry out the tasks that I am supposed to do in my supervisory capacity. This is further confirmed according to Hackett (2014) in Models of Leadership, she discussed a servant leader setting a goal, visualizing it and taking the necessary steps to get to that goal. My disciplinary style and techniques have mirrored the military in years past but so often an airman or seaman is Just doing what their superior is yelling at them to do.I am glad that I learned another way before I had children because my desire now is to affect change in their hearts and not simply in their behavior. In the chapter on Principles & Problems in Implementing Educational Supervision Shadbush (2007) states, â€Å"however useful or significant the material is generally, the worker is not likely to be motivated unless one can show its usefulness and importance for a problem or situation that is meaningful to him or her† (p. 176). As an employee, I have not always been model in compliance to the rules or policies.Especially when I was younger and did not understand the value of obedience, which now I understand really is better than sacrifice! In the lecture, Progressive Discipline, Hackett (2014) asks the question, â€Å"What's behind the problem? † (p. 2). This is a good question and maybe there really is something valid going on behind the noncompliance employee problem and I have to be balanced enough in my thinking to not Jump to conclusions about it. Stress, conflict in casework demands, personal issues that are distracting work performance, etc.These are all potential issues that in the correct view could be legitimate. In Progressive Discipline, Hackett (2014) discussed â€Å"missing the root cause of a problem†. Common Disciplinary Error #5 says, â€Å"Not knowing the root cause makes it difficult to work with an employee to improve performance† (p. 9). Regardless of the reasons, a Performance Improvement Plan (PIP) could be utilized and a valuable employee can be saved. V. How I Manage Legal, Ethical & Cultural Issues Years ago I worked in an older adult clinic and had grown very fond of â€Å"Leticia†, my 70-year-old female Hispanic client of one year. Leticia† would bring me fruits and nuts from her son's orchard for most of the time I worked with her and I did not have he heart to tell her I should not accept gifts from her. But I would share them all with my co-workers to try to balance it out. â€Å"Leticia† really reminded me of my great Aunt Maggie who was in the beginning stages of dementia like â€Å"Leticia† and my relatives in Florida took care of her. In the later nineties, the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (AIRIER) was created and it stopped allowing most public services to illegal immigrants.I had toiled over Leticia case and she had come a long way in her care and she was comfortable in the senior housing that her son and I got her into. I was tempted to continue providing â€Å"Leticia† services â€Å"off the books† because I did not want to abandon providing services to Leticia. Shadbush (2002) states in the chapter on Problems and Innovation that â€Å"a pervasive, ubiquitous ethical problem is how to resolve the disjunction between what we are ethically obligated to do for the client and the reality of what we can do, a dilemma exacerbated by practice in a managed care and increasing litigious environment† (p. 70). Legally and ethically I knew that I was in a very precarious situation, so I sought the counsel of my supervisor and explained my dilemma. In order for me to avoid ethical prohibition against my supervisor and l, we agreed to offer Leticia a referral for an assisted living facility that could better serve her. Then I was assured that Leticia would be safe. She was able to see a social worker that came around to see all of the seniors who lived there and this helped her adjust to her new surroundings. The bible (n. D. Is clear in Romans chapter thirteen, verse one and it says, â€Å"Let every soul be subject to the governing authorities for there is no authority except from God and the authorities that exist are appointed by God†. In the first art of verse seven it also says, â€Å"render therefore to all their due†. So as my Overseer in heaven has determined what I do in situations of a legal and ethical manner, so goes my National Association of Social Workers (NASA) ethical principles speaking and they agree with Him regarding doing the right thing in any situation.Developing a relationship with Leticia was simple because I have always been around many people of different hues and races in the military and most of my grade school years. I can remember distinctly having a cultural celebration every year at my grade school in Los Angels County. Currently I support our department Cultural Committee and have key relationships with those on the African American sub committee and both of my brothers married white women, a cousin married a woman of Filipino decent, so all of this is my comfort level in any way and anywhere.NASA (2014) says, â€Å"These activities seek to promote sensitivity to and knowledge about oppression and cultural and ethnic diversity. Social workers strive to ensure access to needed information, services, and resources; equality of opportunity; and meaningful participation in decision making for all people†. So any interactions I have, as a supervisor regarding ultra awareness and being competent over this area would be simple for me. I may likely have to educate those that work under me and this subject would be discussed Just as any other policy that has zero tolerance but I would do it in a patient manner.VI. Working with Management & Administration Because I am a secretary to a manager often I am carrying messages from my manager to the supervisors and vice versa. I additionally take messages from clerical staff to my manager so I am accustomed to diplomacy at my level. I do have concern about communicating with upper management and must ensure polish and tact. VI'. Examples of My Experiences My current manager is a good example of what model you do not want to pattern yourself after. She is often found to be laughing very loudly; she is somewhat argumentative in meetings and is an awful example of timeliness.So often for her it is â€Å"do as I say and not as I do† and in spite of the fact that she is very intelligent, it is difficult to follow and respect her because of the flaws that she has th at cause her to lose credibility. It is not her having flaws but it is the sort of flaws that she has. I only worked for her for a few weeks before she lost it because I chose to use a particular ender after she said she told me not to use them. I did not remember this and received a written correction from her for it, stating that if I did it again there would be further consequences.She is immediately scary if you make her angry so I Just do my best to not do that. This paper has taken you through many examples of supervision from my paradigm and many others. You learned that one-on-one training is not for me and who the worst friendly visitor is. We relearned our Abacas – awareness, balance and connection, along with my temperament being determined by situation. I discussed what might be behind problems and the lesson that Leticia aught my supervisor and l. We additionally went up and down the ladder with management and administration and how I express myself if I do not t ake moments to gather myself.

HR data collection Essay

HR data collection makes company able to measure against it supporting workforce planning, monitoring progress and development, developing initiatives for generic cases. It identifies and analyses information to aid the organization in making ultimate decisions both beneficial to the organization and its employees. Two reasons considered closely. Through HR data collection an organisation can: 1) comply with legislative and regulatory requirements regarding equal opportunities, equal pay audits, recruitment, assessing skills balance, absence recording. 2) monitor training and performance for employees, assessing each individual employee for productivity and identifying training needs. That means assessing the productivity within the business. Being well informed about the workforce is the key to aim the ultimate goal of the organization. Data collection enables management team to make informed decisions about future activity. Two types of data collected and their support: 1) Attendances is useful to monitor and gauge daily working hours and monitor absences. That enables HR to manage regular absentees successful and deal with any issues the employee might have. 2) Organisational records which includes: staff turnover, absenteeism, recruitment documentation, learning and development. HR department can monitor staff level making decision about a further recruitment process. It is also essential collecting and updating employee records such as home addresses and people to contact in time of emergency. These information are helpful where the employee not to come to work without notice. Records can be stored: 1) Electronically through computerised system. In this way organization can keep information up to date easily and any information can be sent and received rapidly. It also reduce company costs and the amount of data can be stored with no taking up much office space and they can be sorted, found, moved and protected easily. 2) Manually in paper format. In this case the risk of corrupted data is less and information are accessible in any time considering occurrences of power cuts or electronic system crashes. Moreover problems with duplicates of the same record are usually avoided. Two items of UK legislation relating to recording and storing HR data: 1) Data Protection Act, 1998. It concerns all personal records whether held in paper or electronic format. The act contains eight protection principles specifying personal data must be: – Processed fairly and lawfully. – Obtained for specified and lawful purposes. – Adequate, relevant and not excessive. – Accurate and up to date. – Not kept any longer than necessary. – Processed in accordance with the â€Å"data subject’s† (the individual’s) rights. – Securely kept. – Not transferred to any other country outside the EU without adequate protection in situ. 2) Freedom of Information Act, 2000. It allows people to ask any public body for information on both any subject an organization has and themselves too. So that the act encourages organization to be transparent and, unless a valid reason, the organization must provide requested information within 20 working days. Through this act people can access to informations needed and ensure they are not exploited or used inappropriately.

Compare Candide and Tartuffe

In  Tartuffe, Moliere's use's plot to defend and oppose characters that symbolize and ridicule habitual behavior's that was imposed during the neo-classical time period. His work, known as a comedy of manners, consists of flat characters, with few and similar traits and that always restore some kind of peace in the end. He down plays society as a whole by creating a microseism, where everyone in the family has to be obedient, respectful, and mindful of the head of the home, which is played by the father Orgon. Mariane shows her obedience when she replies â€Å"To please you, sir, is what delights me best. (Moliere 324,11) Shortly afterwards, Orgon commands Mariane to take Tartuffe as her husband even though she is not interested in him at all. Orgon's command shows how men are dominate and have control over social order. Mariane's strong obedience to her father (Orgon) supports the Neo-Classical element that the individual is not as important as society. Moliere discusses logic an d reasoning by blindfolding Orgon to the reality of Tartuffe's intentions that causes him to make dumb decisions. In the process, Orgon disregard's his family when told of Tartuffe's intentions.After Tartuffe cons Orgon into believing that Damis's accusation is false Orgon replies, â€Å"I know your motives, I now you wish him ill:/Yes, all of you – wife, children, servants, all – /Conspire against him and desire his fall. † (Moliere 341-342,46-48) Orgon then excommunicates his own son, indicating that his reasoning is deferred due to his ignorance. This in due course challenges the Neo-Classical belief that logic and reasoning is more important than emotion because Orgon acts solely on his emotions. He feels as if his family has turned against his friend so he operates upon his feelings.When Damis returns home and Tartuffe (instead of Orgon) gets locked up, order is restored. At the end, the family commends the officer for apprehending the true criminal by sayi ng, â€Å"Heaven be praised! / We're safe. / I can't believe the danger's past. † (Moliere 361, 84-87) This is when Moliere demonstrated the common saying that â€Å"what happens in the dark will eventually come to the light, therefore allowing confusion to re-establish its order. Moliere developed a series of flat characters, which satirized the Neo-Classic belief system.In  Candide, Voltaire's approach is called black comedy. Many devastating factor's play into the character's lives that causes the reader to be amused in a cynical way in order to guard their inner feelings. He challenges society as a whole by the way he implements real life occurrences into his writing and makes them come alive. This becomes evident when Dr. Pangloss told Candide what came of Cunegonde at the castle of Westphalia after he left. Pangloss described her as being â€Å"disemboweled by the Bulgar soldiers, after having been raped to the absolute limit of human endurance. (Voltaire 524) This causes the imagination to display a vivid picture of the severity of the situation. Furthermore he challenges order by illustrating the human condition. Candide's confusion causes him to ask, â€Å"have they always been liars, traitors, ingrates, thieves, weaklings, sneaks, cowards, backbiters, gluttons, drunkards, misers, climbers, killer's, calumniators, sensualists, fanatics, hypocrites, and fools? † (Voltaire 557) There is an ongoing war between people, and all the while Candide and the others are attempting to maintain. Dr. Pangloss represents the optimism that Voltaire challenges.Pangloss show this by saying, â€Å"it was love; love, the consolation of the human race, the preservative of the universe, the soul of all sensitive beings, love, gentle love. † (Voltaire 525) He challenges, † optimism by his representation of Dr. Pangloss. Dr. Pangloss's blind optimistic approach allows him to forget about the fighting that is occurring amongst people and he only sees love. Satirical approaches to writing were used to change the captivated way of thinking during the late 17th and 18th centuries. The Neo-Classic time period contributed in the expansion of people's view of life.The Enlightenment period writers focused on reason, knowledge, and rationality as major themes. In this era the  Catholic Church  was still an extremely powerful institution operating throughout much of Europe; however reason was beginning to emerge as an alternative to faith and religion. As a result, Enlightenment writers began to look at the world critically and rationally. Much of the important literature of the period was satirical in nature, using humor, irony, and exaggeration to expose and criticize people's stupidity or vices, particularly in the context of contemporary politics and other significant issues.Two great Enlightenment writers, Moliere and Voltaire, use satirical approaches in their works that have various similarities and differences. The simi larities between Moliere's Tartuffe and Voltaire's Candide are primarily rooted in common Enlightenment themes. For example, in both stories the writers focus on questioning and criticizing the nature of hierarchies in our society, particularly the members of the aristocratic or upper classes rather than â€Å"common† people. In Tartuffe, Orgon and his family are members of the aristocracy.Orgon owns his estate and clearly has enough  money  to provide for his entire family in addition to Tartuffe and his friend. Similarly, Voltaire's story focuses on Candide, who may be missing a fraction of his aristocratic  family tree, but is still considered upper class. As the story progresses, the reader sees Candide's accruement of money and wealth despite his initial expulsion from his uncle's estate in the first pages of the story. Although both Voltaire and Moliere write about upper class individuals, neither writer focuses on serious psychological characters in their works.I n fact, quite the opposite is true: the characters in both Tartuffe and Candide are relatively one-dimensional. Enlightenment writers commonly used characters that could serve as â€Å"types† that would be easily recognizable and identifiable to their audiences. Enlightenment writers like Moliere and Voltaire also do not look deeply into characters. Because the characters are so one-dimensional and because the focus during the time period was on the social aspect rather than psychological characteristics, audiences don't often see characters alone.Candide is rarely alone throughout his travels, doing whatever he can do acquire a â€Å"side kick† when he lacks company. Describing a character's individual thoughts in moments of isolation would be more geared toward illuminating the differences between characters. For Enlightenment writers, however, the focus was on the similarities between people rather than these differences. Another similarity between the pieces is a v ery little  sense  of nature or the natural world. Tartuffe. In Candide, the main characters trek across the globe, yet the reader is offered very little description of the locations hey visit. For Enlightenment writers, settings are simply background. Instead, the focus is on the conversation between the characters and the social aspect of events or situations. There was simply little interest in things considered to be outside of society. Although there are many similarities between the two writers, there is about a century's difference in the satire between them. Satire changed during this period of time and gained a lot more edge in Voltaire's time than in Moliere's, partially because of the new scrutiny and criticism of people.Voltaire's satire, for example, is a lot more focused and daring. On the other hand, the threshold for social criticism in Moliere's time was relatively low. Moliere's play would have offended the Church so much so that the writer went out of his way to hyperbolize Tartuffe's hypocrisy. The idea that Tartuffe could have been taken as a â€Å"serious† religious figure was problematic for Moliere despite the fact that Tartuffe was not written as a clergyman. Tartuffe's hypocrisy was as obvious as possible so as not to impugn pious members of the church or clergy.While both Moliere and Voltaire are masterful writers, their satirical approaches have various similarities and differences. Both writers utilize humor, irony, and exaggeration to make their social commentaries that were primarily directed towards the aristocracy. Despite all of their similarities, however, a major difference between the two writers is the time period during which they wrote. Moliere was forced to use much more subtle satire as a result of the oppressive Catholic Church. Voltaire, on the other hand, wrote nearly one hundred years later and was far less constrained and therefore able to use a much more brutal form of satire.Nevertheless, both Tartuff e and Candide are excellent representations of Enlightenment thinking and social criticism at the time. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Tartuffe and Candide are two novels that greatly show a general exaltation of emotion over reason and the senses over intellect. These stories are perfect examples of how life in the neoclassical era also dealt with certain situations that we humans face in today’s world as well. Disputing emotion over reason and the senses over intellect can be explained through both worlds; then and today. Tartuffe on page 19, was written by Moliere. Tartuffe’s them was excess vs. moderation.This goes to show that any excess is an off route to a disciplined life of reason and therefore, it is an example of disorder and a potential disruption of society. Tartuffe show’s several aspects of hypocrisy. Hypocrisy means pretending to be virtuous when one is not and it is a violation of order because it poses tw o realities, reality and its pretense, when we know there is really only one. The reason for hypocrisy is their reaction, not their emotion. Several people in this story were guilty of wrongful reasoning, to provoke hypocrisy. Their sense of intellect was misled by their emotions over wrongful reasoning.Tartuffe and Orgon were major victims of hypocrisy. Tartuffe led Orgon to believe he’s a pure and a loyal friend when in fact he was not that. Tartuffe also tried to take of advantage of Orgon’s wife, Elmire. He also used Mariane to get closer to Orgon’s name and possessions, by convincing Orgon to force his daughter Mariane to marry him. Tartuffe is supposedly supposed to be a â€Å"good Christian† by; being out in the open with worship at church services, yet a true Christian wouldn’t do that. But one way Tartuffe is showing good intellect, even if it is used in an unmoral way, is him kneeling to Orgon.When someone kneels before you, Tartuffe was giving all responsibility, reason, power, judgment to Orgon. Tartuffe is giving power to get power, unlike Orgon who frustrates everyone for power. Orgon is somewhat the villain for giving Tartuffe the power. Orgon is also overly in passion in regards to Tartuffe. He is even worse than Madam Pernelle. He no longer cared about what he was supposed to be responsible for. And he replaced genuine responsibility for his family with unneeded concern for Tartuffe. An example of this act is on page 24 scene 4.Orgon showed wrongful reasoning by giving his word to Mariane’s true love Valere. And then took his word back by forcing her to marry Tartuffe. And in doing so he let himself fall for Tartuffe’s trap of ruining his family. In this story Orgon is trying to trade responsibility for control. He is also trying to control his family, which is sad. Orgon thinks he is getting older, losing control and is going through what some would call a mid-life crisis. Mariane also shows aw ful reasoning by letting her dad push her around and agree to her father that she would follow his word to marry Tartuffe when she really didn’t want †¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Moliere’s Tartuffe, Racine’s Phaedra and Voltaire’s Candide are each exemplary literary works of the 18th  century in their own rights. Tartuffe is a satirical comedy, Phaedra an intense tragedy and Candide a thought-provoking travelogue. While each adheres austerely to its genre, various similarities as well as contrasting differences can be traced among the aforementioned works. Written during the Age of Enlightenment, each of these works reflects the ideology of the period and hence, has various similarities. Firstly, each of these works glorifies reason over religion and the theory that man is responsible for his own actions.These timeless masterpieces were revolutionary among contemporaries. Moliere uses comedy to ridicule hypocrites, impostors and fools who ignore moderate commo n sense. He mocked certain religious sects and tried to point attention to the corrupt among them. At the time, such ridicule of those associated with the Church was highly unacceptable and was considered radical. Voltaire too tried to poke fun at members of the upper class and institutionalized religion through the character of Cunegonde’s brother – the young baron. He portrayed him as a homosexual and a man of stringent narrow-minded beliefs.Other ideas and that make this piece revolutionary are the deliberate ridicule of popular beliefs and a scene implying bestiality. Phaedra too was revolutionary because it was the one of the first works that portrayed a story from a feminine point of view. Phaedra is the mythological classic Hippolytus re-written from the perspective of a female protagonist. The first of its sort, Phaedra broke new grounds. Thus each of these works can be considered revolutionary. Another aspect worth comparing is the portrayal of female characte rs in these plays.Each of these classics describes their female characters as attractive, smart, opportunistic and deceptive. In Tartuffe, the lady of the house Elmire seduces Tartuffe in order to bring to light his true nature and save her family’s fortune. Racine describes Phaedra as a woman tempted by incest and possessed by jealousy. In Candide, the female characters – Cunegonde, the maid, Paquette and the Marquise of Parolignac are described as opportunistic, astute and conniving. Thus, the three works have a similar discernment of women. These works also portray a similar complexity of relationships.In Tartuffe, the man of the house – Oregon is portrayed as narrow-minded and gullible. Oregon sticks to his beliefs and there is spell of tension among the family members. He shields himself from common logic and refuses to hear the voice of reason. In Phaedra, Theseus blindly believes the words of another and summons death on to his own son. Candide too has a similar portrayal of family relationships. Cunegonde’s brother refuses permission to allow Candide to marry her because he values the caste system over his sister’s love.Also, Candide who has sworn immortal love for his beloved Cunegonde tries to revoke his steps when he finds she is no more the attractive young girl he fell in love with and she too willingly gives him up to marry a wealthy governor. These works also lack a hero or a model of perfection. In Tartuffe, the central character is a crook, while Oregon is gullible and Elmire crafty and opportunistic. In Phaedra, the central character is seen as weak and immoral, Theseus as disloyal and Hippolytus as proud and vain. In Candide, the protagonist is easily fooled and commits various sins including adultery and murder during his adventures.Thus, each of this pieces lack the traditional hero or a paradigm of virtue to look up to. While these works are similar in many ways, they also have wide range of differences. The most notable difference among the genres is the emotional ambience set throughout the individual works. Tartuffe maintains comical situations through every scene, mostly satirical with a touch of slapstick for relief. While, in polar contrast Phaedra maintains a very serious tone throughout the story with a wave of intense scenes troughed with moderation.Candide however, transcends genres as it moves from tragedy to comedy. Defined as a black comedy, it combines tragedy and comedy to form a new genre. A noteworthy dissimilarity between the three plays is that Moliere and Voltaire use Tartuffe and Phaedra respectively to give vent to their views and opinions on society at the time and its defects. Phaedra however is a take of the Roman classic, Hippolytus from a different perspective. Further, Tartuffe and Candide have a male central character while the story of Phaedra revolves around a female.As mentioned earlier, Phaedra is far more revolutionary in this context compared to t he other two as it tackles a story from a woman’s perspective. Another major point of difference between the genres is the result they achieve. The tragedy of Phaedra evokes the sublime and results in an emotional catharsis for the reader – a purge of feelings. On the other hand, Candide and Tartuffe use the genre of comedy to bring to light the various evils of society. The happy ending gives a reassuring feeling and the scenes of humor are entertainingly amusing.Hence, the different genres bring out different emotions from the reader. The three pieces are also different by means of the message they pose to deliver to the reader. Tartuffe tries to prove right the statement ‘the end justifies the means,’ with Elmire using Tartuffe’s method against him. Phaedra, an intense and dramatic tragedy, depicts how pride destroys the mighty and Candide debunks the theory ‘Everything is for the best in the best of all possible worlds. ’ The most i mportant factor that unifies each of the three genres is that they all aim to entertain. However their method of reaching this common goal varies.Tartuffe uses comedy, Phaedra tragedy and Candide transcends genres and uses a combination of both. Hence, they can be seen as different roads that lead to the same destination. Candide Voltaire's Candide has many themes, though one central, philosophical theme traverses the entire work. This theme is a direct assault on the philosophy of Leibniz, Pope and others. Leibniz held that the world created by God was the best possible world with perfect order and reason. Alexander Pope, similarly, in his Essay on Man, argues that every human being is a part of a greater, rational, grand design of God.Pangloss stresses this viewpoint-that what appears to be evil is actually part of a greater good-when he asserts to Jacques that â€Å"private misfortunes make for public welfare.? /font> Voltaire, on the other hand, found that his own experiences c ontradicted this optimistic determinism. Much like his protagonist, Candide, Voltaire must abandon this belief after realizing the needless suffering that surrounds him. Thus the major theme of the book revolves around this idea that the world is not the best of all possible ones, that it isn't determined by reason and order, and that accident and chance play a major role.Though as a deist, Voltaire believed that God did create the world, he also believed that human injustice and brutality made the world anything but perfect. Furthermore, he believed that the fatalistic philosophy of Pope and others stripped man of his God-given free will. In addition to his anti-philosophy current which runs throughout the work, Voltaire also satirically indicts religion and war. Almost from the first chapter to the last, Voltaire depicts religious men (priests, monks, etc) as hypocrites who don't live up to the religion they profess to believe.Most importantly, Voltaire makes the Church out to be one of the most corrupt, violence-ridden institutions on the planet. This is seen both during the Inquisition scene towards the middle of the book as well as the Jesuit satire seen while Candide and Cacambo are in Paraguay. Based largely on Voltaire's experiences of the Seven Years? War (1756-63), an anti-war message is found throughout the fast-paced narrative of Candide. Voltaire bitingly criticizes both the French (Abares) and the Prussians (Bulgars). Casually describing the thousands of dead soldiers on both sides, Voltaire underscores how wasteful these â€Å"heroes? re of human life, clearly showing his anti-war sentiments. During one such battle, Candide, his protagonist, hides, doing his best to keep away from the needless bloodshed and â€Å"heroic butchery.? After the battle subsides, he escapes through the battlefield, seeing the â€Å"scattered brains and severed limbs? that â€Å"littered the ground.? /font> Thus, Voltaire bashes a multitude of people and institutio ns throughout Candide. Despite his many sources of criticism, however, Voltaire merges all of his satires into one, larger message-that the human world is utterly disutopian.All of the versions of utopia which Voltaire raises up and then slams down in his work demonstrate such a loss of optimism. Pangloss? utopia, for one, which simply changes the conditions of the word to fit it to the world he knows is proven false, since even Pangloss himself eventually stops believing it. Eldorado, a second kind of utopia, also fails to satisfy Candide, who soon becomes bored, yearning for adventure, and, of course, Cunegonde. Only the decision to simply till the land at the conclusion of the book satisfies a quasi-utopian hope of the reader.Yet when Pangloss tries to resurrect the idea that this world is a utopia in the second to last paragraph, Candide himself dismisses the notion. The eighteenth century in Europe,  more famously known as the â€Å"Age of Enlightenment,† was a time of profound literary advances. It was an era that saw the expansion and perfection of the novel and an unprecedented proliferation of socially conscious works. The period produced a veritable slew of classics, two among them clearly being Moliere's  Tartuffe  and Voltaire's  Candide. Although written in different times and in different ormats, both works present humorous stories as vehicles for social commentary. Both tales would be classics for their satire alone, but it is their portrayal of women that is perhaps most interesting. European women in the eighteenth century occupied a precarious position between the ponderous advance of liberalism and the lingering influence of traditional gender roles, and the two works offer broad insights into the lives of such women. Moliere's  Tartuffe  and Voltaire's  Candide  both feature sympathetic and dignified portrayals of strong female characters subordinated or oppressed by eighteenth century society.One such character in Mo liere's  Tartuffe  is Dorine, the lady-maid to Orgon's wife Elmire. In  Tartuffe, Moliere presents Dorine as an intelligent woman with a good understanding of human behavior. Moliere attests to her intelligence early in the story by showing her to be the most perceptive member of the household. Unlike Orgon, who is so dimwitted and foolish that he is completely blind to Tartuffe's chicanery, Dorine is able to â€Å"see right through him,† bluntly declaring him a â€Å"fraud† (Moliere 25).Dorine is also consistently presented as outspoken and opinionated, frequently chastising Orgon's actions, particularly concerning the marriage of Mariane and Tartuffe (Moliere 40-42). Furthermore, although Moliere places Dorine in the relatively low position of a lady-maid, he is always quick to display her innate intelligence, dignity, and perceptiveness. In doing so, Moliere actually depicts Dorine as a walking contradiction; Dorine clearly possesses mental acuity beyond her s tation, but she is still a maid.Her situation illustrates the position of countless proletarian women of the age: competent and intelligent, but mired in inequality and menial labor. As Dorine states in the play, ironically speaking of Madame Pernelle rather than herself, â€Å"She's thus because she can't be otherwise† (Moliere 27). Moliere's commentary on society is exceptionally penetrating here. In making Dorine, a servant (and a female at that), perceptive and intelligent, and the higher class men of the household either hopelessly foolish or ineffectual, he is demonstrating that class and gender mean little in determining one's worth or intellect.Elmire, the dutiful wife of the dullard Orgon, is portrayed in a similar manner despite her different position. In Tartuffe, Moliere depicts the character as a resourceful and intelligent woman much like Dorine. Elmire is clearly shown to be mentally superior to her husband, to the point that she becomes frustrated with her hus band's gullibility concerning Tartuffe, saying bluntly that â€Å"[Orgon's] blindness takes [her] breath away† (Moliere 67). Elmire is also a key figure in Moliere's work.When Orgon refuses to admit that Tartuffe could possibly harbor adulterous intentions, Elmire takes the initiative and persuades her stubborn husband to hide under a table while she manipulates Tartuffe into admitting his nefarious intent (Moliere 68-69). The fact that Elmire is forced to manipulate her husband's decisions rather than make her own, however, is a clear illustration of the subordinate status of women in eighteenth century marriage. For all her cunning, Elmire is still presented as the subordinate figure in the marriage; it is Orgon who controls the finances, home, and daughters of the family.Indeed, Moliere depicts Elmire as a character much like Dorine: strong, sympathetic, yet ultimately subject to the patriarchal society of the eighteenth century. Elmire is restrained by her status as a wif e, Dorine is restrained by her position as a maid, and both are ultimately subordinated by virtue of being female. A similar portrayal of women comes in Voltaire's  Candide, particularly in the character Cunegonde, Candide's love interest and ultimate wife. Voltaire presents Cunegonde as a simple but honest woman with the potent advantages of being â€Å"of noble lineage† and â€Å"rosy-cheeked, fresh, plump, and appetizing† (276).Unlike Moliere, Voltaire does not imbue his female characters with outstanding intelligence; instead, his female characters exhibit a keen understanding of human behavior born from life experience and intuition. Arthur Scherr comments on this in his article â€Å"Voltaire's ‘Candide': a tale of women's equality,† stating that Cunegonde: Unfortunately, Cunegonde eventually undergoes horrific experiences at the hands of several men in  Candide. In her terrible journey, Cunegonde becomes a symbol of the more terrible and overt c rimes perpetrated towards women in the eighteenth century and throughout time.Throughout the course of the novel, Cunegonde suffers rape, mutilation, and multiple kidnappings (Voltaire 286-287). Although she is able to recover from the experiences, and actually becomes somewhat stronger in doing so, she is nevertheless victimized and traumatized by eighteenth century warfare and society. Much like Moliere's Dorine and Elmire, Cunegonde is limited by her status as a female, and suffers atrocities as a result. Voltaire is perhaps somewhat hyperbolic in creating her story for effect, but the spirit of her experiences is not unlike those of many European women caught in the many wars of the eighteenth century.Ultimately, Voltaire portrays Cunegonde as a sympathetic woman who retains her dignity despite experiencing the worst of social realities in eighteenth century Europe. Indeed, Moliere's  Tartuffe  and Voltaire's  Candide  both present strong portrayals of sympathetic, digni fied women restrained or aggressed against by eighteenth century society. Though the works differ greatly in style, one can see social commentary on the status of women in Moliere's mild, amusing comedy and Voltaire's sensational, abrasive satire.The authors' female characters are strong, complex figures that, much like many women of the eighteenth century, were forced to exist in a position of relative weakness. Ironically, it is the very ability of those authors to see such injustices that is probably most influenced by the Enlightenment ideas and slowly expanding liberalism of the era itself. Whatever the case may be, both works stand even today as classics, not just for their brilliant satire, but also for their potent insight into the experiences of eighteenth century women.Considering  Tartuffe  was written in the 17th century, you might expect the female characters to be soft-spoken, demure, and generally pretty dull. But that couldn't be further from the truth – w ell, except in the case of Mariane; she's soft-spoken, demure, and generally pretty dull. But Elmire and Dorine – that's a whole different story. Each one defies convention with gusto: they do some things that would still be audacious even today. They're quick-witted, strong-willed, and a bit saucy. They're a match for their male counterparts anytime, any day. http://www. shmoop. om/tartuffe/women-femininity-quotes. html Voltaire’s Candide is a very funny satire that skewers the Optimistic attitude that â€Å"this is the best of all possible worlds. † Obviously, considering the horrific events Candide goes through, this isn’t the best of anything. Candide has several companions in his misadventures, notably Dr. Pangloss, his mentor and tutor; and Cacambo, his servant. Of the women in the tale, two are most important: Cunegonde, the woman Candide loves, and the old woman, whom he meets on his travels. This paper will compare and contrast the way the two wo men are presented in the novel.II Cunegonde Cunegonde is Candide’s true love. She is the daughter of the Baron Thunder-ten-tronckh, who raised Candide in his castle. She is beautiful, desirable, and despite all the horrible things that happen to her, she is fearfully dull. She is raped and cut open by Bulgarian soldiers (she notes it isn’t always necessary to die from such treatment); sold to numerous men as a sexual plaything; reunited with Candide; parted from him; and reunited again at the end of the book. She isn’t very bright, and she’s essentially passive as a doormat.She fights her Bulgarian rapist, but as soon as she’s rescued (by a Bulgarian captain, not Candide) she becomes his willing servant and his lover. When he grows tired of her, he sells her to a Jew named Don Issachar, who adores women. But soon after that she catches the eye of the Grand Inquisitor, who also wants her. The two men work out an arrangement whereby Don Issachar visi ts her Monday, Wednesday and the Sabbath; the Grand Inquisitor has the other four days of the week, though there have been some arguments, apparently, about when the Sabbath begins and ends.Soon after Cunegonde tells Candide her tale, Don Issachar shows up. He immediately attacks Candide, and Candide kills him. A few moments later, the Grand Inquisitor arrives, and Candide figures that he’ll turn them in, so he kills him, too. Then he, Cunegonde and the old woman escape from the scene. When they arrive at an inn, Cunegonde comment is â€Å"Where will I find another Jew and another inquisitor to give me more jewels? She is for sale to the highest bidder; she also has the brains of a flea, and because Candide is a bright young man, his devotion to her is ridiculous; a satirical example of men’s weakness for women. III The Old Woman The old woman is a much livelier character, despite the fact that she’s so much older, and despite the fact that she has been through many of the same ordeals as the younger woman: she has been raped numerous times, sold far more often than Cunegonde, and even had one buttock cut off to feed the janissaries that were defending her and other women of a harem.The daughter of Pope Urban X, she has been raised in luxury only to fall prey to pirates and sold into slavery. But she meets his misfortunes with an energy and drive that Cunegonde lacks. She even says at one point: â€Å"I have been a hundred times upon the point of killing myself, but still I was fond of life. † (Voltaire, PG). The greatest difference between the two lies in the old woman’s active stance, as contrasted with Cunegonde’s passivity. We learn that the old woman was sold at last to a Boyard, who put her to work in the fields and lashed her every day.But instead of simply assuming this was her lot in life, she did something about it: â€Å"But this nobleman having about two years afterwards been broken alive upon the wheel, with about thirty others, for some court intrigues, I took advantage of the event, and made my escape. † (Voltaire, PG). After escaping, she tells us, she traveled through many different countries, making her living as a servant at various inns and hostels. In this too she is different from Cunegonde, who has been satisfied to allow men to keep her.She has lived a live that is actually much harder than Cunegonde’s, because the latter has been sheltered and cared for by men who wanted her for her beauty and sexual charms, which meant that she was well-treated (if any woman being sold against her will can be said to be well-treated). Still, both Don Issachar and the Grand Inquisitor gave her rich gifts, good food and fine wine; no one did such things for the older woman. True, they were both little better than slaves, but Cunegonde accepted her chains while the old woman fought hers.Finally, as she finishes relating her tale, the old woman says â€Å"I have a great deal of knowledge and experience in the world†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Voltaire, PG). And that may be the biggest difference of all. Cunegonde, as I say, is not very bright, and so the things that she’s been through mean little to her, and she hasn’t learned much from them. But the old woman has gained a great deal of experience, and furthermore, put it to use. She has escaped from the Boyard and made a living for herself in many different countries, surely not an easy thing to do. IV ConclusionThe women in Candide, in general, suffer a great deal of physical hardship. Rape abounds, as does torture, mutilation and other types of general mayhem. But they react to their misfortunes very differently. Cunegonde accepts whatever happens to her passively; indeed, one gets the impression that she simply lets events roll over her, neither noticing nor caring much what happens. The old woman, however, is very much aware of what’s going on, and she actively involves herself with events. In so doing, she becomes the more attractive character.

Evolution of the Immune System

John Frelinger Dr. Travis Organic Evolution 30 April 2012 Evolution of the Immune System Animals are constantly bombarded by an immensely varied array of disease causing pathogens including bacteria, fungi, viruses and other parasites. The number of microbes living in the human body outnumber the actual human cells by a factor of 10, and for every single species of animal and plant on Earth, there are viruses that infect them. With the unrelenting threat of disease-causing pathogens all around us, and even within us, how can the constantly vulnerable organisms defend themselves?Evolution has provided an answer to this problem—the immune system. The immune system is a vastly complex orchestra of cells working together to help eliminate potentially harmful pathogens from the body. Some form of host defense is found in every multicellular organism, however there are myriad variations in the immune systems of different organisms. Vertebrates have evolved an acquired immune respons e, in which a specific immune system is activated to clear an infection that is initially controlled by a non-specific (innate) immune response.This highly adaptable system is important to the survival of vertebrate species. Surprisingly, however, 90% of animals (invertebrates) do not have this kind of response. Despite lacking a seemingly critical adaptation, invertebrates continue to survive and reproduce. Why does it appear necessary for vertebrates to have an acquired response in order to survive, but the more numerous invertebrate species do not? Research indicates that there is an evolutionary lineage of the immune system that stems from the split of invertebrates and vertebrates.Innate immunity, which is found in all animals, is assumed to be at the beginning of this evolutionary tree. After the diversification of species (vertebrates branching from invertebrates), mechanisms of immunity also diverged. In this paper I will first discuss the function of the innate immune syste m because of its older evolutionary history, followed by the adaptive immune response that evolved later in vertebrate lineages. I will then conclude by placing the development of the innate and adaptive immune system in an evolutionary context.Innate immunity is the first line of defense for an organism and is made up of elements that protect the organism from pathogens. Anatomical aspects such as skin act as an impermeable barrier to infectious pathogens. Chemical and biological factors, including anti-microbial peptides like defensins, are also used to inhibit bacterial growth and prevent colonization. Another immunological factor of the innate immune system are phagocytic cells (macrophages), which are cells that engulf and eliminate foreign pathogens.These cells operate using a variety of different and generalized receptors that recognize a broad range of molecular patterns expressed by pathogens that initiate phagocytosis. One such family of receptors, known as Toll-like Recep tors, recognizes common pathogen elements such as bacterial wall components or viral DNA sequences. This component is found in virtually every multicellular organism, ranging from sponges to humans (Muller and Muller 2003). Plants also express proteins that are very similar to toll-like receptors, indicating that this aspect of the innate immune system predates the divergence of plants and animals.The innate immune system is so valuable to an organism’s survival because it is always present and in many instances can prevent pathogen entry or replication. This, in turn, prevents a harmful infection from ever occurring inside the host. Although invertebrates do not have the acquired immune response, recent research has shown that their innate response is more complex than previously thought. Insects can activate their immune systems to remain in a higher state in order to prepare for a pathogen invasion.During bedbug mating, females are frequently injured in the process because males will stab a female to inject his sperm, infecting her with bacteria and exposing her to other potential infections. In response, females have evolved ways to enhance their immune system prior to mating in anticipation of pathogen invasion (Morrow and Arnqvist 2003). Bumblebees are capable of maintaining a heightened immune system in response to a prior pathogen invasion to aid in the prevention of future infections. Immunity such as this has been shown to pass down vertically to offspring, therefore increasing their fitness (Tyler et al. 006). Slugs have also evolved an interesting alternative response in the form of increased mutation rates of certain immune cell receptors, which allows their immune system to adapt to many foreign elements (Litman and Cooper 2007). While it is inherently different from the acquired immune response, this sensitive management of immune function was previously thought to be reserved as a characteristic of vertebrates and the adaptive immune res ponse. As vertebrates began to diverge and evolve from invertebrates, so too did the immune system.The new adaptive branch of the immune system originally conferred a new selective advantage for vertebrates because of its specificity and immense flexibility in recognizing new pathogens. The clonal selection theory, in which each lymphocyte clonally expresses a specific antigen receptor, can help explain how the immune system can express an extremely wide range of potential receptors capable of recognizing new pathogens. Lymphocytes are undifferentiated cells that ultimately become B-cells (Bone Marrow) or T-cells (Thymus) depending on where they migrate.B-cells possess a uniquely structured immunoglobulin molecule (antibodies exposed on outer surface) that recognizes and binds to a specific molecular counterpart. When a foreign antigen is bound to the antibody, it stimulates the replication of that specific B-cell with the aid of Helper T-cells, which enhance B-cell maturation. This process results in the clonal expansion of cells that recognize the original antigen and subsequent production of antibodies that help in the eradication of the pathogen. An important point of this process is that the pathogens select which lymphocytes expand.It also results in memory B-cells and T-cells that constitute a persistent immune memory for a particular antigen. This expanded pool of memory cells is activated upon a second exposure to the same pathogen, resulting in a much more rapid immune response to clear infection. Other types of T-cells are also produced during this process. For example, cytotoxic T-cells target and kill virally infected cells, while suppressor or regulatory T-cells are activated when the infectious pathogens are eliminated and signal the immune system to subside.Cells such as these also experience selective pressures–ones that react to self-tissue (and harm the host) would be selected against, while those that recognize pathogens would surviv e and replicate. The clonal selection theory addresses many aspects of vertebrate immunity, however, it does not explain all of the mysteries behind the variety of antibody generation. The sheer number of antibodies that can be produced and the finding that the acquired immune response can generate antibodies to manmade molecules that are not present in nature led scientists to explore how such diversity is generated.Research done by Susumu Tonegawa in the 1970’s indicated that B-cells have the ability to produce a huge number of antibodies due to a gene rearrangement process. B cells originally have many sets of gene segments (Variable, Diverse, and Joining) and over the course of its maturation reduce these segments to one of each type for the production of the antibody heavy chain. A similar process of gene rearrangement is involved for the production of the antibody light chain. The light chain and heavy chain proteins then assemble to form the complete antibody molecule that can specifically bind to an antigen.Two genes that are critical for this process to work are RAG1 and RAG2. These genes are known as recombination-activating genes and distinguish the vertebrate immune system from other lineages. These genes are critical to the process because they act as the excision and joining molecules that cut and knit back together the individual VDJ segments that make up the antibody. This results in the huge potential of diverse antibodies that can be produced—hundreds of millions of possible antibody types generated from a much smaller number of gene segments that can react with virtually any antigen.This sophisticated process may have originally been introduced by a mobile genetic element known as transposons. These transposable elements have the ability to excise themselves from one DNA sequence and incorporate themselves into another, very similar to the RAG1 and RAG2 gene functions. After the divergence of jawed and jawless vertebrates, a vi ral infection of the jawed lineage’s gametes may have introduced a transposon into their genome. (Thompson 1995). This may have provided the raw materials necessary to facilitate the development of adaptive immunity.The acquired response appears to have evolved from a single lineage because all vertebrates (excluding jawless fish) retain this RAG-mediated gene rearrangement system. The specificity of this kind of response may have been selected for because of its ability to recognize a diverse number of pathogens, but also because it could conserve more energy resources compared to the generalized defense of the innate response. The adaptive immune response is structured in such a way that it can respond to an almost infinite number of pathogens, while utilizing a relatively limited number of genes.Figure 1 illustrates a potential phylogeny based on some immune system adaptations previously discussed. Figure 1 (Reproduced from Litman and Cooper 2007). Although the vertebrate immune system is extremely adaptable to many potential threats, it is far from perfect. Epidemics such as the Bubonic Plague or the 1918 influenza killed millions of people. Similarly, when the Spanish colonized the New World, they also introduced pathogens that were devastating to the indigenous people.One of the major limitations of the acquired immune response is that it takes a relatively long time to respond after the initial exposure in order to be effective. This time is required because the lymphocytes must clonally expand before a pathogen can be eliminated. For example, in the case of the Native Americans, when they were exposed to the new pathogens, the infections spread to a portion of the population that was large enough to leave them unable to forage for food or to tend to the sick. As a result, it nearly wiped out the entire civilization.This limitation is significant as illustrated by these and many other historical epidemics. These difficulties have led scientists t o think more fully about the effectiveness of the vertebrate immune system. If the immune system has the potential to combat virtually any conceivable threat, why then can’t it always eliminate any potentially harmful pathogen? We also look to immune hypersensitivity and autoimmunity as potential drawbacks of the immune system, indicating further imperfections of the adaptation. When the immune system mistakenly targets self-tissue, it results in serious consequences for the organism.Concepts in evolutionary biology might help address these issues. In this context the immune system does not have to be inherently perfect by design because only some individuals of a population need to survive and reproduce for that lineage to continue. The variation introduced by the immune system generates the diversity necessary for a population to adapt to changing environmental pressures. As others have suggested, a zebra doesn’t have to outrun the lion, just the slowest member of th e herd (Hedrick 2004).The immune system is subjected to the same constraints as other characteristics in regards to natural selection. In this case even if a trait is not optimal, but helps the organism survive and reproduce, it will be selected for, regardless of any deleterious effects experienced post-reproduction. Many, but not all immunologists, believe the development of the adaptive immune system with gene rearrangement was a critical advance. It has been proposed that the development of the adaptive immune system was the â€Å"Big Bang† for the evolution of immune system (Travis 2009).This development might have also enabled the rapid expansion of vertebrates. Moreover, the idea that the adaptive immune system can generate receptors for molecules that are not yet present, makes it extremely flexible and has been called â€Å"forward thinking† (Travis 2009). Thus, while the immune system does not anticipate every change in organisms it is ready for them by const ructing a large repertoire of antigen specific receptors, which confers a big selective advantage. Others have suggested the adaptive immune system conserves resources, and thus is better than the innate system.In contrast, as noted earlier, invertebrates lack a fully functional adaptive immune system and are very successful. Moreover, others have argued that even if the immune system was an advantage, it was only temporary and short lived (Hedrick 2004). Another relevant issue deals with the concept of parasite and host co-evolution. This constant struggle is exemplified by a quote from Lewis Carroll’s â€Å"Through the Looking Glass†, â€Å"it takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place†. This concept, originally introduced by Leigh Van Valen, has been termed the Red Queen hypothesis.According to this hypothesis, an improvement in fitness for one species will lead to a selective advantage for that species. However, since species are often coevo lving with one another, improvement in one species implies that it gains a competitive advantage over the other species, and thus has the potential to outcompete for shared resources. This means that fitness increase in one evolutionary system will tend to lead to fitness decrease in another system. The only way that a competing species can maintain its relative fitness is to improve on its own design.Although this theory was used to help explain the extinction of species and the evolution of sexual reproduction, it has been applied to many aspects of predator prey relationships including the development of the immune system. Because animals are constantly attacked by fast-adapting parasites, the host immune system cannot possibly gain an advantage over them. The evolution of the immune system is caused by the small advantages conferred as a result of variation in the recognition of pathogens.As suggested by Steven Hedrick, â€Å"by selecting for more elusive parasites, the immune system is ultimately the cause of its own necessity† (Hedrick 2004). Thus paradoxically, the immune system, since it places a strong selective pressure on pathogens and parasites, ultimately has become essential for vertebrates to survive. By placing selective pressure on parasites that can evolve much more rapidly than animals (due to their higher reproductive/mutation rate), it results in parasites that are increasingly more effective at infecting hosts of that species.In terms of the immune system, one strategy that parasites have developed is a means of altering their own antigens to become unrecognizable. In this way they escape the adaptive immune system by altering their structure. For example, trypanosomes can switch the major target antigen for antibodies, which they use as a strategy to extend the amount of time they reside in the host. This results in a more contagious host that will increase the spread of pathogens to new hosts (Stockdale et al. 2008).Similarly, be cause the HIV polymerase is very error prone with no proof reading mechanism, many mutations arise in the HIV proteins during its infection. While the adaptive immune system can make neutralizing antibodies, new variants arise that can no longer be recognized by the antibodies. These new variants have a selective advantage and escape, and thus the adaptive immune system  is always lagging behind. In terms of the host immune response, there is also an extremely high level  of polymorphism of major histocompatibility genes, which enable the population to respond to a wider array of antigens using T-cells.The benefit of this heterozygosity is that it allows the individual to respond to a wider variety of antigens. Moreover this diversity helps ensure that even though some individuals may perish, the particular pathogen will not be able to eliminate the entire population. Some infectious agents have even taken it a step further and evolved ways to utilize the host immune system to i ncrease their own fitness. For example, infections that result in pus filled cysts can be used to carry parasitic progeny and spread to new hosts when they burst.Even though this may help the host clear an infection, the pathogen can use this to increase its own fitness and infect more individuals. The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) utilizes the host immune system by initially infecting macrophages, and subsequently T-cells, which the virus uses as a reservoir for reproduction and as a means to spread to many different tissues in the body (Orenstein 2001). It also serves the virus to target immune cells for infection because crippling the host immune response akes it easier for the virus to spread throughout the body and eventually to new hosts (due to the higher viral load). In this light, it is possible that invertebrates did not evolve the adaptive immune response because they may have never needed it. By lacking the ability to develop a â€Å"memory† for a particular pathogen, those pathogens did not evolve anti-immune mechanisms to counter the host immune response. An immune memory could lead to more devious pathogens and result in a more harmful infection in the future.This could have been a better strategy for invertebrates as it may have prevented the co-evolution of more virulent pathogens (Hedrick 2004). The immune system has a long evolutionary history in multicellular organisms. The innate immune system is a critical adaptation that helped these organisms survive the onslaught of parasites and pathogens. Vertebrates possess an adaptive immune response that allowed for the recognition of an almost infinite number of pathogenic antigens, however, it appears to have become a one-way road with the coevolution of pathogens.Once this adaptive system appeared in the vertebrate lineage, there was no going back. Because of the immense flexibility of the adaptive immune response, it places huge selective pressures on pathogens to constantly evolve new mechanisms of infecting hosts. Thus in the context of evolution, even with the incredible versatility of the adaptive immune system, it is likely there can not be an ultimate solution to infection by parasites only a new, perhaps unstable, equilibrium. Works Cited Hedrick, S. (2004). The Acquired Immune System: A Vantage from Beneath.Immunity 21, 607-615. Litman, G. and Cooper, M. (2007). Why Study the Evolution of Immunity? Nature Immunology 8, 547-548. Morrow, E. H. , and Arnqvist, G. (2003). Costly traumatic insemination and a female counter-adaptation in bed bugs. Proceedings of the Royal SocietyB: Biological Sciences. 270: 2377–2381 Muller, W. and Muller, I. (2003). Origin of the Metazoan Immune System: Identification of the Molecules and Their Functions in Sponge. Integrative and Comparative Biology 43, 281-292. Orenstein, J. (2001). The Macrophage in HIV Infection.Immunobiol. 204, 598- 602. Stockdale, C. , Swiderski, M. , Barry D. , and Richard McCulloch (2008). A ntigenic Variation in Trypanosoma brucei: Joining the DOTs. PLoS Biol 6. Thompson, C. B. (1995). New insights into V(D)J recombination and its role in the evolution of the immune system. Immunity 3, 531–539. Travis, John. (2009). â€Å"On the Origin of the Immune System†. Sciencemag Vol. 329. Tyler, E. , Adams, S. , and Mallon, E. (2006), An Immune Response in the Bumblebee,Bombus terrestris leads to increased food consumption. BMC Physiology 6.

Court Observation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Court Observation - Essay Example The Courts are arranged in order to settle local disputes and keep the society in an ordered form. This is an enduring process which was initiated around more than six hundred years ago. Before attending the court, I contacted each court to get known to the cases and times that can be attended since in some cases youth are not allowed to attend. I reattempted to visit the court on 1st April’ 2013. As I reached the District Court, many people were waiting and there were signs posted on the doors of court rooms notifying the instructions for entrance in the court. The opening of the building was magnificent. Though I was known to the fact that the public is allowed to enter the court room, in order to avoid being intrusive, I decided to wait patiently in the Cashier line with hope that I’ll be provided assistance by someone. Soon, my hopes were fulfilled and I was escorted by an individual into the court room. The arrangement of the courtroom was plain. The court room did n’t have any police present as well as didn’t have any defendant's box. The judge was a white, middle-class, middle-aged male. The public was allowed to sit on the backside of the court room. I immediately looked around and attempted to get known with the surrounding. I found a few number of people waiting either by themselves or along with their attorneys on the bench-seats while few were seated in the jury box in jail uniforms. I got seated and adjusted my ears and eyes to initiate notes taking. The case hearings attended by me were about a car incidence. The case was comprised of claims from two parties countering one another. As usual the claim was made by the plaintiff who was unable to view the defendant car arriving and attempt to evade. To counter this claim, the defendant whose leg and lower back got injured due to the collision with the plaintiff’s car. I observed that within the court room, the judge examined both claims simultaneously for saving time and ensuring quick processing. Although the legal way of examining such claims is that each is examined separately but this procedure was not followed by the judge for saving time. As I got into the court room, I got a seat on the backside reserved for public, in front of the judge bench located at the other side of the court room. On my right side, the claimant along with her lawyer was seated and in front of the claimant, the Barrister was seated on a layer. On my left side, the defendant was seated along with his Barrister seated in front of him. Initially the claimant was moved to the witness stand so that both partied can examine him. The claimant told that she parked her car to the road’s left side and then went to a nearby shop to purchase her daily groceries. Later on when she finished her shopping, she came back to her car and attempted to get it back on the main road. However, while trying to get to the road’s right side, she was unable to notice the car of defendant on time, and consequently she was unable to stay away from them as she didn’t had enough time and the two cars as a consequence smashed. After her little comprehensive description of the accident, she was cross examined by both barristers who asked numerous questions in order to dig out the facts. When the plaintiff’s examination was done, the defendant came to the witness st

Use of Video in Secondary Science Education Research Paper

Use of Video in Secondary Science Education - Research Paper Example Use of Video in Secondary Science Education Use of video projects in a classroom environment is one of the most effective ways to ensure that students get the required content. This is because it involves a hands-on approach where the students use theory that they have learnt to create their own videos, however the tools that the students use will determine how effective they will be in creating their own videos. The most efficient tools that students can use in video creation In choosing the most effective video creation tools that students can use, the following factors were put into consideration. One is the user friendliness of the tool where issues like easiness on the eye and navigation and the intuitiveness of the UI (Ivers & Barron, 2010). Second factor that was put in to consideration was the features that the tool contained such as assessment capability or feedback functions, another factor that was put into consideration is the limitations that come with the tools such as whether it is a WYSIWYG tool or it needs a p rogramming nous. imovie is a video editing software that is sold by Apple inc company for Mac and iOS which include iphone, ipad, ipad mini and ipod touch that was originally launched in the market in the year 1999 (Laybourne, 2009). Since 2005, imovie was designed to process high definition video from HDV camcorders and other versions of camcorders such as AVCHD camcorders and H.264 compressed video from MPEG4, to support this, the tool has undergone metamorphosis to ensure smooth integration especially with apple products. imovie HD 5 included support for HDV, which includes the 720p and 1080i, in addition, it also supported the integration with ilife suite and toolbox buttons that allow importation of images from iphoto and music from itunes. The HD 6 version, which was released in 2006 included support for iphotos, itunes, iDVD , garageband and iweb, this version was aimed at making the imovie more user-friendly as it included themes that allowed the user to drag and drop movies and photos in bac kdrops. The imovie 08 was an improvement of the previous versions of imovie as it contained better HD output and more formats in which files could be converted to. This edition however received criticism since it completely abandoned the earlier versions of imovie and features such as slow motion, fast motion, black and white options had been removed, in addition, imovie 08 could not support more than one project at a time. The imovie 09 was basically a response to the criticism the ’08 version as it restored features that the previous versions had, in addition, it also simplified some more advanced tasks such as picture to picture and chroma keying. The imovie 11 had the capability of making movie trailers, gave the user more power over the audio option, allowed immediate rerun, flash, and hold effects, new theme, face detection and the potential to watch videos on apple products. with the unveiling of the iphone, which was designed to support iOS, the apple company designed an imovie app that would be compatible with the iOS since the other products of the company were also designed to support the iOS (Maci?as, Granollers & Latorre, 2009). Animoto Animoto is an online video editing software that is easy to use among the students, a key feature of the

Guidelines for Country Case Report ( Viet Nam) Essay

Guidelines for Country Case Report ( Viet Nam) - Essay Example on (ASEAN) in 1995, and thereby of the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA), and signed memorandum of understanding for commercial cooperation with the European Union (USA International Business Publications 121). Moreover, Vietnam consents to all efforts in support of its economic development and foreign investment (122). Despite moderation of trade barriers and enhanced diplomatic relations with more than a hundred territories worldwide, Vietnam remains true to the communist ideals. The Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP) still has control of election of government officials, from the highest to the most minor positions; and prohibits establishment of independent political, religious and labor organizations (USA International Business Publications 122). This is one practice that does not correspond with the concepts of globalization; yet seems to have worked well in Vietnam, perhaps because the greater part of its population trusts that it serves the common good. In this case, it is safe to assume that Vietnam recognizes the advantages of international trade but views all states as autonomous (Harrison)—meaning, interdependence may exist but it does not force all states to follow a resolute pattern of governance as was intended for the Washington Consensus. From the surface, this realistic philosophy of Vietnam towards foreign affairs, that is, making certain actions to open itself to globalization yet is not willing to share sovereign powers with other actors (Brawley 47), appears to provoke conflict among those that consider themselves dominant. Following the game theory perspective, however, this can be associated to a game of stag hunt—wherein cooperation among actors is the key to seizing the best price, although delegation of a leader or each actor deciding on its own strategy does not significantly affect the aftermath of the event. As mentioned earlier, Vietnam puts diplomacy at the forefront of all its ventures; and should there be a risk of tension due to